README.md

Udemy C++ Course Notes

Useful notes to refer to made whilst following John Purcell's Advanced C++ course on Udemy.

Handling files

• Use fstream and when opening the file pass the flag ios::in or ios::out as the flag - this is the same effect as using ifstream or ofstream.
• Use std::ws (e.g. input >> std::ws) to remove leading whitespace when reading input (C++11 feature).
• Open binary files by passing the flag ios::binary so that newline characters aren't interpreted as newline characters (and possibly other characters too - they should all just be treated as raw data).
• When writing data to binary files ensure the data does not have padding (detailed below).
• When writing data to a binary file the address of the data to write must be passed rather than the actual data - e.g. &something not something. But write expects a char pointer (char *). Therefore the pointer passed to write must be cast to a char pointer. This can be done using (char *)&something or reinterpret_cast<char *>(&something).
• Data is read from a binary file in the same manner.

Padding/Packing

• Objects (e.g. structs) are padded so that the amount of memory (returned by sizeof) aligns on 2 or 4 byte boundaries.
• When writing to a binary file this padding needs to be turned off so that the only thing written to the file is just the data in the object.
• To remove the padding enclose the declaration of the object with two preprocessor (#pragma) directives.
• The directive before is #pragma pack(push, 1) to align the following data on single byte boundaries, therefore there will be no padding.
• To undo the directive so it doesn't apply to everthing following use the directive after as #pragma pack(pop).

Vectors

• Vectors can be navigated through using a standard for loop with an index or by using an iterator.
• Vectors manage an array internally to store the data in.
• The size() method returns the number of elements currently stored.
• The capacity() method returns the allocated memory for the internal array.
• If a new element is inserted to the vector that takes it above capacity then a new array (typically a factor of 2 larger, implementation dependent) is created and all the elements from the old array are copied across.
• Using the resize() method changes the number of allocated elements (the clear() method reduces this to 0) - but has no effect on the capacity.
• The capacity can be increased by using the reserve() method - e.g. to immediately allocate memory for X elements to avoid resizing the array if you already know the maximum number of elements you will be adding.

Lists

• Lists are a doubly linked list - each element is a node with a data value and pointers to the previous/next element.
• Navigating lists must be done using an iterator.
• Elements can be added to the beginning/end by using push_front(value)/push_back(value).
• Elements can be added directly after the element currently accessed by an iterator it using the method insert(it, value).
• Elements can be removed by calling erase(it) - this removes the element currently referenced by the iterator and moves the iterator to point at the next element.

Maps

• Maps act like a lookup table - you store key -> value pairs.
• E.g. a map can use strings as keys and ints as values by creating as map<string, int>.
• Values can be added and accessed using standard array syntax (square brackets).
• Maps can be iterated over in a for loop in a similar way to vectors and strings.
• An iterator for a map is pointer to an object with properties first and second which are the keys and values respectively.
• Trying to access a key that does not exist with array type syntax will add it to the map (which may not be the desired behaviour).
• To check if a key exists in the map use the find(key) method - this returns an iterator which points to the element if it exists or points to the end of the map if it does not exist.
• The object pointed to by the iterator (e.g. iterator of type map<string, int>::iterator) is actually a pair (e.g. pair<string, int>), which has public members first and second.
• A pair can be directly inserted into the map using the method insert(pair<string, int>("Name", 100)).
• A pair can be created using the function make_pair(first, second) as a shorter syntax.
• When using custom objects as map values they must have a paramterless constructor.
• When the map assigns values it is using the objects implementation of the assignment constructor - by default this will be performing a shallow copy which may not be desirable and so your object will need the assignment operator overloading.
• If you insert values using insert(make_pair(...)) then the copy constructor will be used, this also performs a shallow copy by default which may not be desired and so the copy constructor will need to be overwritten.
• To use custom objects as keys they must have their methods marked as const (because the iterator that points to the keys returns them as const values).
• The keys in a map are sorted, so a custom object used as a key must have the less than operator overloaded as bool operator<(const myObject &other) const {...}.
• The overloaded less than operator is used to determine if two keys are the same - so depending on your object's implementation of the less than operator you may find that the map will treat two keys as the same even if the underlying objects are actually different.

Multimaps

• multimap allows repeated keys.
• Multimaps do not have an overloaded array syntax access operator so the insert method must be used.
• Multimaps can be looped through with an iterator like a normal map.
• Keys are ordered as they are for a map.
• The find(key) method can be used to find a particular key - but this will just point to the first appearance of that key in the map (and keys are no longer unique).
• To get all the values with a particualr key you would use pair<multimap<int, string>::iterator, multimap<int, string>::interator> its = myMultimap.equal_range(key) and then use a for loop of the form for(multimap<int, string>::iterator it=its.first; it != its.second; it++).
• This can be simplified with use of the c++11 auto type as auto its = myMultimap.qual_range(30).

Sets

• A set is an object that only stores unique values, e.g. declared as set<int> numbers.
• Values are inserted using the insert() method.
• Sets order their elements (so custom objects will need the less than operator overloading as they do to use them as map keys).
• Sets can be iterated in the same manner as vectors/maps/multimaps.
• Trying to insert the same element twice will just result in the second method call doing nothing.
• The find(element) method can be used to find if an element exists in the set.
• The count(element) method returns 0 or 1 (since the elements are unique - so this is useful to use in if statements to determine if an element exists (as an alternative to find(element)).

Stacks and Queues

• Stacks are a "last in, first out" stucture - like a physical stack of an object.
• The memory used to store the values of local variables is itself a stack.
• Declate a stack as stack<int> myStack and add elements with the push() method (note that when adding objects to a stack collection the original object is destroyed and a new one created onto the stack - doing a shallow copy by default).
• The element on the top of the stack (last added) can be accessed with the top() method - either copy it as Test test1 = testStack.top() or get a reference to it with Test &test2 = testStack.top(), but if this object is then popped from the stack then the object is destoyed and this reference would be invalid.
• Elements can be taken off the top of the stack with the pop() method (this returns void and destroys the object).
• The size() method returns the number of elements in the stack.
• Queues are a "first in, first out" structure - like a physical queue of people.
• The front of the queue is accessed with front() (as opposed to accessing the last element of a stack with top()).
• The pop() method of a queue removes the first object added to the queue (referenced by front()).
• The last element added to a queue is accessed with back().

Sorting vectors, Deque and Friend

• A vector can be sorted with sort(myVec.begin(), myVec.end()) (iterators can be supplied for a subsection of the vector to only sort a part of the vector).
• To sort a vector the elements must have the less than operator defined for them (so custom objects will need to overload it).
• Alternatively a comparison function can be passed to sort() as sort(myVec.begin(), myVec.end(), myComparison) (the last parameter here is a function pointer - passed by just providing the name of the function).
• The comparison function may need to access private members of the object, this can be achieved by using friend. Put the declaration of the comparison function in the class declaration and precede it with the keyword friend.
• Deque is a double ended queue, it behaves like a vector that can have elements pushed onto the front as well as the end (push_front and push_back are avaialble methods).

Operator Overloading - Assignment

• The default implementation of the assignment operator for custom objects performs a shallow copy (directly copying the values.
• The assignment operator is an example of a binary operator.
• The assignment opearator needs to return a const reference to the object it is called on (e.g. so that it can be chained test3 = test2 = test1 without allowing the object it was just called on to be changed.
• For a class Test this would be defined as const Test &operator=(const Test &other) { .... return *this;}.
• test3.operator=(test2) is the same as test3 = test2.
• Using Test test2 = test1 uses the implicit copy constructor (copy initialization), this is decalred as Test(const Test &other).
• If you implement an assignment operator, a copy constructor or a destructor then you ought to be sure to implement the other two (rule of 3) - because the reasons for implementing one of them will usually be reasons for needing implementations of the others as well.

Operator Overloading - Left Bit Shift

• Ths operator (<<) is useful for printing objects, e.g. cout << test1 << endl.
• The bit shift operator has left right associativity (as if we do (cout << test1) << endl, although this is invalid code) as opposed to the + operator which has right left associativity (so 1+2+5 is the same as 1+(2+5)).
• So in the line cout << test1 << endl both times the left bit shift operator has first argument ostream - this is means that it can't be implemented for a custom object as an overloaded operator (because then the implicit first argument would be the custom object), so we need to use friend again.
• This would be implemented as friend ostream &operator<<(ostream &out, cosnt Test &test) {out << test.name; return out;}.

Operator Overloading - Plus

• Note: this is using a custom Complex class that is a simple implementation of a complex number class.
• Since the plus operator doesn't change either of its arguments it can be implemented as a free standing function (provided there a getter methods to provide the member values it needs) that returns a new Complex instance.
• This would be defined as Complex operator+(const Complex &c1, const Complex &c2).
• The plus operator can also be overloaded to combine different types, e.g. Complex operator+(const Complex &c1, double d), but this only implements c1+d, not d+c1 - so we need to also implement Complex operator+(double d, const Complex &c1).

Operator Overloading - Equality Test

• The equality operator is overloaded as bool operator==(const myObject &other) const {...}.
• Similar the not equal operator is overloaded as bool operator!=(const myObject &other) const { return !(*this==other); } - since we are likely going to want the not equal operator to just be the inverse of the equality operator.

Operator Overloading - Dereference

• Note: this is using a custom Complex class that is a simple implementation of a complex number class.
• Since the * symbol is often used to denote the complex conjugate we might want to overload it for the Complex class that we created.
• This could be done as Complex Complex::operator*() const {...} - just in the same manner as previously for other operators.

Template Classes and Functions

• The compiler needs to know about implementation at compile time (not linking time) - therefore the declaration and the implementation generally should go in the same header file (there are alternatives).
• Generally use single letters for template types template<class T>.
• Instead of template<class T> you can also use template<typename T>.
• Template functions can be overridden, e.g. declare template<class T>print(T n){...} and print(int n). Then calling print<int>(5) calls the first and print(5) calls the latter.
• Type inference can be used if the argument list provides the type, e.g. we could use print<>(5) and type inference will convert it to print<int>(5) (if we hadn't overridden the int version of print then we would not need the empty angle brackets). But this only works if we have an argument list that provides the type to c++.

Function Pointers and Related OO Topics

• A function pointer to a function void test() would be declared as void (*pTest)() = &test (a pointer to a function that has no arguments and returns void.
• The address symbol is not needed, because the name of a function is actually a pointer to that function, so we can use void (*pTest)() = test.
• To call the function through the pointer use (*pTest)().
• The derefernce operator is not needed, so this can be simplified to pTest() to call the function pointed to by pTest.
• If the function was void test(int value) then a pointer to it would be created as void (*pTest)(int).
• In the algorithm header is the function count_if(...). So if we had a vector called testsand a function that returned true on some condition on the vector elements called match(...), then we could get the number of matches within our vector by passing the start and end of the vector and a pointer to the matching function (just by its name) as count_if(tests.begin(), tests.end(), match).
• If we had two classes Parent and Child (with the latter inheriting from the former) and both implemented a method void print() we could create a reference to the parent type that points at the child object Child c1; Parent &p1 = c1; and called p1.print() we would call the print() method from the Parent class.
• To avoid the situation above we must declare the method in the parent class as virtual (virtual void print()) for C++ to create a table of function pointers that point to the appropriate functions for the right type of object.
• Note that if a derived class does important cleanup in its destructor then it is a good idea to mark the base class' dstructor as virtual to ensure the derived class' destructor is always called.
• Linked to this is object slicing or upcasting - where we do something like Parent p2 = Child(), and slice off the derived class part and "throw it away" and only keep the base class properties/methods.
• A pure virtual function is a method that has a virtual method declared like virtual void speak() = 0 (this does not set the function to 0, it is a notation that means that the method has no implementation in this class.
• A class that contains at least one pure virtual function is an abstract class, abstract classes cannot be instantiated and for a class derived from an abstract class to be instantiated it must contain implementations for all the pure virtual functions declared in the abstract base class.
• Although an abstract class cannot be instantiated - we can create pointers to an abstract base class, e.g. we could delcare Animals *animals[5] and then Dog dog; animals[0] = dog; animals[0]->speak(); if speak() is one of the virtual functions declared in Animal.
• Functors are another useful tool, but largely superseded by lambdas in C++11 (which provide a "syntactic sugar" for functors.
• A functor is a class/struct that overloads the round bracket operator ().
• Functors are useful when you want to pass around a particular block of code - e.g. a base object Test and derived object MatchTest where the base class overloads the () operator as a pure virtual method, then an instance of the derived class can be passed to a function that expects a reference to the base class and used to perform some operation there.
• Functors can be beneficial over function pointers because they are objects and so can have private variables and other methods and also hold a state if needed.

C++11 Specifics

• Will need to use compiler flags of -std=c++11 or the relevant flags for compiler in use.

Decltype, Typid and Name Mangling

• Decltype is a new C++11 keyword, typeid is already present in C++98 (but knowledge of both needed for use of auto which is new to C++11).
• To use typeid include the typeinfo header (for consistency, although may not be needed) even though it is a keyword.
• To get the name of a type we can use typeid(value).name(), for basic types the name might be i for an int or d for a double (compiler dependent).
• For complex types (e.g. string) the name will appear more complicated - due to name mangling.
• Decltype returns the type of the variable - e.g. int value1; decltype(value1) value2; is the same as using int values1; int value2;.

Auto Keyword

• In C++98 auto is the default storage class specifier for variables (so auto int value = 7; is the same as int value = 7;).
• IN C++11 the definition of auto has been extended to look at the type of value the variable is being initialised with (so we could just write auto value = 7; and it would make value of type int because we initialise it with an int.
• Auto can also be used with trailing return types which were added in C++11. This can be used to make one function return the same as another function e.g. auto test2() -> decltype(test1()) {...} will make test2 return the same type as test1. Or with a template function we could do template<class T, class S> auto test(T value1, S value2) -> decltype(value1 + value2) {...} so that test returns the same variable type as is returned from adding value1 and value2.

Range-based Loops

• A range based for loop for an array like auto texts = {"one", "two", "three"} could be done with for(auto text: texts) which sets text to each of the values in texts.
• The object being looped over must be an array or an object from the standard template library (e.g. vector or string).

Making classes iterable

• If a class is iterable then it can be looped over uing the same syntax as range-based loops.
• To make a class iterable it needs to have a nested class iterator and methods begin and end.
• Suppose we have a ring class (acting as a ring buffer) with private members m_pos, m_size (ints) and m_values (pointer to the type of variable being stored in the ring). Then the begin and end methods would return an iterator created as iterator(m_size, *this) and iterator(m_pos, *this) respectively. With ring<T>::iterator having constructor that takes the position it points to and a reference to the ring object, which are in turn private members of the iterator.
• The iterator also needs to overload the ++ (increment) postfix operator as iterator &operator++(int) {m_pos++, return *this}. The increment prefix operator would be overloaded in the same way but simply by not passing an argument.
• We also overload the dereference operator to return a reference to the current element T &operator*() { return m_ring.get(m_pos) }.
• Finally the not equals (!=) operator needs overloading bool operator!=(const iterator &other) const { return a_pos != other.m_pos; }.
• The ring object can be iterated in both C++98 and C++11 style.

Initializer Lists

• Initializer lists can be used when initializing objects from the standard library (e.g. vector<string> test {"one", "two", "three"}) and even custom structs.
• It can be used with custom classes as Test(initializer_list<string> texts){...} and the initializer list can iterated over with a loop like for(auto value: texts).
• Initiliazer lists can also be passed as arguments to functions.

Lambdas

Introducing lambda expressions

• auto func = [](){ cout << "Hello" << endl; }; creates func to be a lambda expression (func is a reference to teh anonymous function), which can be called as func().
• [](){}; is actually a valid lambda expression.
• This could be passed to a function with parameters void test( void (*pFunc)() ) { pFunc(); } and called as test(func);.