forked from mhagiwara/cll-ja
-
Notifications
You must be signed in to change notification settings - Fork 7
/
chapter5.html
2036 lines (2031 loc) · 86 KB
/
chapter5.html
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
253
254
255
256
257
258
259
260
261
262
263
264
265
266
267
268
269
270
271
272
273
274
275
276
277
278
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
287
288
289
290
291
292
293
294
295
296
297
298
299
300
301
302
303
304
305
306
307
308
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316
317
318
319
320
321
322
323
324
325
326
327
328
329
330
331
332
333
334
335
336
337
338
339
340
341
342
343
344
345
346
347
348
349
350
351
352
353
354
355
356
357
358
359
360
361
362
363
364
365
366
367
368
369
370
371
372
373
374
375
376
377
378
379
380
381
382
383
384
385
386
387
388
389
390
391
392
393
394
395
396
397
398
399
400
401
402
403
404
405
406
407
408
409
410
411
412
413
414
415
416
417
418
419
420
421
422
423
424
425
426
427
428
429
430
431
432
433
434
435
436
437
438
439
440
441
442
443
444
445
446
447
448
449
450
451
452
453
454
455
456
457
458
459
460
461
462
463
464
465
466
467
468
469
470
471
472
473
474
475
476
477
478
479
480
481
482
483
484
485
486
487
488
489
490
491
492
493
494
495
496
497
498
499
500
501
502
503
504
505
506
507
508
509
510
511
512
513
514
515
516
517
518
519
520
521
522
523
524
525
526
527
528
529
530
531
532
533
534
535
536
537
538
539
540
541
542
543
544
545
546
547
548
549
550
551
552
553
554
555
556
557
558
559
560
561
562
563
564
565
566
567
568
569
570
571
572
573
574
575
576
577
578
579
580
581
582
583
584
585
586
587
588
589
590
591
592
593
594
595
596
597
598
599
600
601
602
603
604
605
606
607
608
609
610
611
612
613
614
615
616
617
618
619
620
621
622
623
624
625
626
627
628
629
630
631
632
633
634
635
636
637
638
639
640
641
642
643
644
645
646
647
648
649
650
651
652
653
654
655
656
657
658
659
660
661
662
663
664
665
666
667
668
669
670
671
672
673
674
675
676
677
678
679
680
681
682
683
684
685
686
687
688
689
690
691
692
693
694
695
696
697
698
699
700
701
702
703
704
705
706
707
708
709
710
711
712
713
714
715
716
717
718
719
720
721
722
723
724
725
726
727
728
729
730
731
732
733
734
735
736
737
738
739
740
741
742
743
744
745
746
747
748
749
750
751
752
753
754
755
756
757
758
759
760
761
762
763
764
765
766
767
768
769
770
771
772
773
774
775
776
777
778
779
780
781
782
783
784
785
786
787
788
789
790
791
792
793
794
795
796
797
798
799
800
801
802
803
804
805
806
807
808
809
810
811
812
813
814
815
816
817
818
819
820
821
822
823
824
825
826
827
828
829
830
831
832
833
834
835
836
837
838
839
840
841
842
843
844
845
846
847
848
849
850
851
852
853
854
855
856
857
858
859
860
861
862
863
864
865
866
867
868
869
870
871
872
873
874
875
876
877
878
879
880
881
882
883
884
885
886
887
888
889
890
891
892
893
894
895
896
897
898
899
900
901
902
903
904
905
906
907
908
909
910
911
912
913
914
915
916
917
918
919
920
921
922
923
924
925
926
927
928
929
930
931
932
933
934
935
936
937
938
939
940
941
942
943
944
945
946
947
948
949
950
951
952
953
954
955
956
957
958
959
960
961
962
963
964
965
966
967
968
969
970
971
972
973
974
975
976
977
978
979
980
981
982
983
984
985
986
987
988
989
990
991
992
993
994
995
996
997
998
999
1000
<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/strict.dtd">
<html lang="ja"><head>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="content-type">
<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="cll-ja.css" />
<title>Chapter 5</title>
<style type="text/css">
<!--
body {color: #000000; }
p {color: #A0A0A0; font-size: 10pt; margin: 2px; display: none;}
-->
</style>
</head>
<body>
<div class="nav">
<div class="nav-prev">
<div class="nav-section-link-prev"><a href="chapter4.html">まえ</a></div>
<div class="nav-section-name">第4章</div>
</div>
<div class="nav-next">
<div class="nav-section-link-next"><a href="chapter6.html">つぎ</a></div>
<div class="nav-section-name">第6章</div>
</div>
<div class="nav-title">
<div class="nav-title-title">CLL 第5章 ＜可愛い小さい女子の学校＞ロジバンのセルブリの構造</div>
<div class="nav-title-link"><a href="./">目次</a></div>
</div>
</div>
<center>
<img src="./images/chapter5.gif" alt="[Cartoon]"
width="405" height="405" />
</center>
<hr>
<br>
<h1><small>５章
</small></h1>
<h1><small>
＜可愛い小さい女子の学校＞ロジバンのセルブリの構造
<p>``Pretty Little Girls' School'': The Structure Of Lojban selbri</p>
</small></h1>
<h2>
1. ロジバンの内容語 ブリヴラ
<p>1. Lojban content words: brivla</p>
</h2>
すべてのロジバンのブリディ（命題）はひとつ以上のセルブリから成り立つ。<br>
ブリディは事物間の関係を表現する。セルブリはその関係を特定する。<br>
<p>At the center, logically and often physically, of every Lojban
bridi is one or more words which constitute the selbri. A bridi
expresses a relationship between things: the selbri specifies which
relationship is referred to. The difference between:</p>
<br>
<span style="font-weight: bold;">1.1) do mamta mi</span>
あなたは私の母です。<br>
と、<br>
<span style="font-weight: bold;">1.2) do patfu mi</span>
あなたは私の父です。
<br>
<br>
は、セルブリの違いである。<br>
<br>
<p>1.1)do mamta mi<br>
You are-a-mother-of me.<br>
You are my mother.<br>
and<br>
1.2)do patfu mi<br>
You are-a-father-of me.<br>
You are my father.<br>
lies in the different selbri.<br>
</p>
もっとも簡単なセルブリは一個の内容語であるブリヴラである。<br>
ブリヴラには、ギスムとルジヴォ（合成語）とフヒヴラ（借用語）の３種ある。<br>
ブリヴラと同じ働きをするシマヴォが少しある。
<p>The simplest kind of selbri is a single Lojban content word:a
brivla.<br>
There are three different varieties of brivla: those which are built<br>
into the language (the gismu), those which are derived from<br>
combinations of the gismu (the lujvo), and those which are<br>
taken(usually in a modified form) from other languages (the fu'ivla). <br>
In addition, there are a few cmavo that can act like brivla; <br>
these are mentioned in Section 9, and discussed in full in Chapter 7.<br>
For the purposes of this chapter, however, all brivla are alike. For
example,<br>
</p>
<br>
<br>
<span style="font-weight: bold;">1.3) ta bloti
</span> それはボートである。
<br>
<br>
<span style="font-weight: bold;">1.4) ta brablo
</span> それは船である。
<br>
<br>
<span style="font-weight: bold;">1.5) ta blotrskunri
</span> それはスクーナー船である。<br>
<p>
1.3) ta bloti<br>
That is-a-boat.<br>
That is a boat.<br>
<br>
1.4) ta brablo<br>
that is-a-large-boat.<br>
That is a ship.<br>
<br>
1.5) ta blotrskunri<br>
That is-a-(boat)-schooner.<br>
That is a schooner.<br>
</p>
<br>
各文は、３種のブリヴラ（ギスム、ルジヴォ、フヒヴラ）を表している。<br>
本章では、ブリヴラの例としてほとんどギスムを使うが、他のブリヴラと交換可能である。<br>
<br>
<p> illustrate the three types of brivla (gismu, lujvo, and
fu'ivla respectively), but in each case the selbri is composed of a
single word
whose meaning can be learned independent of its origins.<br>
The remainder of this chapter will mostly use gismu as example brivla,
because they are short. However, it is important to keep in mind that
wherever a gismu appears, it could be replaced by any other kind of
brivla.<br>
</p>
<h2>
2. 簡単なタンル<br>
<p>2. Simple tanru</p>
</h2>
<br>
セルブリが複数のブリヴラから成る場合をタンルという。<br>
タンルは、英語の名詞の結合に似ている。<br>
例えば<span style="font-weight: bold;">lemon
tree</span>だが、これを正確に解釈することはできない。<br>
レモンが実る木とも、レモン色をした木とも解釈されうる。<br>
<br>
<p>Beyond the single brivla, a selbri may consist of two brivla placed
together. When a selbri is built in this way from more than one brivla,
it is called a tanru, a word with no single English equivalent. The
nearest analogue to tanru in English are combinations of two nouns such
as ``lemon tree''. There is no way to tell just by looking at the
phrase ``lemon tree'' exactly what it refers to, even if you know the
meanings of ``lemon'' and ``tree'' by themselves. As English-speakers,
we must simply know that it refers to ``a tree which bears lemons as
fruits''. A person who didn't know English very well might think of it
as analogous to ``brown tree'' and wonder, ``What kind of tree is
lemon-colored?''</p><br>
<br>
タンルは、 <span style="font-weight: bold;">big boy</span>や<span style="font-weight: bold;">quickly run</span>のように<span style="font-weight: bold;"></span>形容詞－名詞や副詞－動詞と同様の目的で使わ
れる。<br>
しかし、ロジバンには、名詞、動詞、形容詞、副詞といったカテゴリーはない。<br>
ロジバンにおいては、それらは単にブリヴラというカテゴリーとなる。<br>
<br>
タンルの例をあげてみる。<br>
<p>
In Lojban, tanru are also used for the same purposes as English
adjective- noun combinations like ``big boy'' and adverb-verb
combinations like ``quickly run''. This is a consequence of Lojban not
having any such categories as ``noun'', ``verb'', ``adjective'', or
``adverb''. English words belonging to any of these categories are
translated by simple brivla in Lojban. Here are some examples of tanru:<br>
</p>
<br>
<span style="font-weight: bold;">2.1)tu
pelnimre tricu</span> それは、レモンの木である。<br>
<br>
<span style="font-weight: bold;">2.2)la djan.
barda nanla</span> ジャンは大きな少年である。<br>
<br>
<span style="font-weight: bold;">2.3); mi sutra
bajra</span> 私は速く走る。<br>
<br>
<p>
2.1) tu pelnimre tricu<br>
that-yonder is-a-(lemon tree).<br>
That is a lemon tree.<br>
<br>
2.2) la djan. barda nanla<br>
John is-a-big boy.<br>
John is a big boy.<br>
<br>
2.3) mi sutra bajra<br>
I quick run.<br>
I quickly run/I run quickly.<br>
</p>
<span style="font-weight: bold;">pelnimre</span>は、<span style="font-weight: bold;">pelxu</span>（黄色）と<span style="font-weight: bold;">nimre</span>（柑橘類）から成る＜レモン＞の意
味のルジヴォである。
<br>
<span style="font-weight: bold;">sutra</span>は、文脈によって
＜速い＞にも＜速く＞にもなる。
<p>Note that ``pelnimre'' is a lujvo for ``lemon''; it is derived
from the gismu ``pelxu'', yellow, and ``nimre'', citrus. Note also that
``sutra'' can mean ``fast/quick'' or ``quickly'' depending on its use:<br>
</p>
<br>
<br>
<span style="font-weight: bold;">2.4)mi sutra </span>私
は速い。<br>
<br>
;例文2.3）は、＜私は速いランナーである＞と訳すことも可能である。
タンルの要素に対して特別の用語がある。最初の要素は、セルタウseltauと言い、
後の要素は、テルタウtertauと言う。
タンルを解釈するときに、最も重要な規則は、テルタウが基本的な意味を担うということである。
pelnimre tricuでは、第一義的には木であり、
二義的にそれがある点においてレモンに結びついているということである。したがって、例文2.1)の別バージョンの訳は、
<br>
<p>
2.4) mi sutra<br>
I am-fast/quick.<br>
shows ``sutra'' used to translate an adjective, whereas in Example 2.3
it is translating an adverb. (Another correct translation of Example
2.3, however, would be ``I am a quick runner''.)<br>
There are special Lojban terms for the two components of a tanru,
derived from the place structure of the word ``tanru''. The first
component is called the ``seltau'', and the second component is called
the ``tertau''.<br>
<br>
The most important rule for use in interpreting tanru is that the
tertau carries the primary meaning. A ``pelnimre tricu'' is primarily a
tree, and only secondarily is it connected with lemons in some way. For
this reason, an alternative translation of Example 2.1 would be:<br>
</p>
<br>
2.5) それは、レモン型の木である。
となる。
タンルを構成する要素どうしの間の、この「型(タイプ)の～」というタイプの関係は、タンルの概念において基礎となる。
<br>
<p>
2.5) That is a lemon type of tree.<br>
This ``type of'' relationship between the components of a tanru is
fundamental to the tanru concept.<br>
</p>
<br>
また、セルタウがテルタウの意味を変更するとも言えるかもしれない。
<br>
<p>We may also say that the seltau modifies the meaning of the tertau:<br></p>
<br>
2.6)それは、レモン的な木である。(木であることに妥当な形で)
<br>
というのは、例文2.1)のもう一つのあり得る翻訳である。同様に、例文2.2)のより明解な訳は、
<br>
2.7) ジャンは少年が大きいということに妥当な形で大きな少年である。
<br>
この「少年が大きいということに妥当な形」というのは象が大きいというときのそれとは大きく異なる。大きな少年は、象にとっては小さい。<br>
<br>
<p>
2.6) That is a tree which is lemon-ish<br>
(in the way appropriate to trees)<br>
would be another possible translation of Example 2.1. In the same way,
a more explicit translation of Example 2.2 might be:<br>
2.7) John is a boy who is big in the way that boys are big.<br>
This ``way that boys are big'' would be quite different from the way in
which elephants are big; big-for-a-boy is small-for-an-elephant.<br>
</p>
<br>
あらゆるタンルは意味的に曖昧である。<br>
<span style="font-weight: bold;">2.8) ta klama jubme</span> それは行く型のテーブルである。<br>
という例文のあり得る訳は、
<br>
<p>
All tanru are ambiguous semantically. Possible translations of:<br>
<br>
2.8) ta klama jubme<br>
That is-a-goer type-of-table.<br>
include:<br>
</p>
<ol>
<li>それは進むテーブルである。(たとえば、車輪の付いたテーブル)</li>
<li>それは誰か行く人が所有しているテーブルである。</li>
<li>それは誰か行く人が所有していたテーブルである。(スポーツドクターのテーブル？)</li>
<li>それは進む時においてはテーブルである。(そうでないときは椅子？)</li>
</ol>
<br>を含む。
<br>
<p>
That is a table which goes (a wheeled table, perhaps). That is a table
owned by one who goes. That is a table used by those who go (a sports
doctor's table?). That is a table when it goes (otherwise it is a
chair?).<br>
</p>
<br>
いずれの場合でも物体は「行く型のテーブル」と言及されているが、「型の」という曖昧な関係はたくさんのもののうちの一つしか指すことができない。<br>
タンルを使う発話者は(実際はすべての発話者がそうなのだが)、誤解されるリスクを負う。
<br>タンルは短く表現力に富んでいるので、それを使うと便利なのである。曖昧性を追い出すために必要な遠回しの表現にはあまりにも多くの労力を必要としてしまうからだ。
<br>あらゆる可能なタンルの意味を包括する一般的な理論は存在しないし、これからも存在することはないだろう。しかしながら、いくぶんかの規則性は明らかに存在する。
<p><br>
In each case the object referred to is a ``goer type of table'', but
the ambiguous ``type of'' relationship can mean one of many things. A
speaker who uses tanru (and pragmatically all speakers must) takes the
risk of being misunderstood. Using tanru is convenient because they are
short and expressive; the circumlocution required to squeeze out all
ambiguity can require too much effort.<br>
No general theory covering the meaning of all possible tanru exists;
probably no such theory can exist. However, some regularities obviously
do exist:<br></p>
<br>
<span style="font-weight: bold;">2.9) do barda prenu</span> あなたは大きい人だ。<br>
<span style="font-weight: bold;">2.10) do cmalu prenu</span> あなたは小さい人だ。<br>
<p>
<br>
2.9) do barda prenu<br>
You are-a-large person.<br>
<br>
2.10) do cmalu prenu<br>
You are-a-small person.<br>
</p>
は並列するタンルであり、その意味では"brada"と"prenu"の関係は"cmalu"と"barda"の関係と同じである。14章と15章には例文とともにいくつかの種類のタンルの部分的なリストを記してある。
<br>
<p>
are parallel tanru, in the sense that the relationship between
``barda'' and ``prenu'' is the same as that between ``cmalu'' and
``prenu''. Section 14 and Section 15 contain a partial listing of some
types of tanru, with examples.<br>
</p>
<br>
<h2>
3. "bo"で接続された3項タンル<br>
<p>3. Three-part tanru grouping with ``bo''</p>
</h2>
<br>
この節で議論するのは以下のシマヴォである。<br>
<p>The following cmavo is discussed in this section:<br></p>
<br>
<pre>
bo BO 最も密接な範囲をグループ化
</pre>
<p>bo BO closest scope grouping<br></p>
<br>
この文を考えてほしい。<br>
<p>Consider the English sentence:<br></p>
<br>
3.1) それは小さい女子の学校だ。<br>
これは何を意味するだろうか？以下の二つの読み方が考えられる。<br>
<br>
3.2) それは女子のための小さな学校である。（小さいのは学校）
<br>
3.3) それは小さな女子のための学校である。（小さいのは女子）
<p>
<br>
3.1) That's a little girls' school.<br>
What does it mean? Two possible readings are:<br>
<br>
3.2) That's a little school for girls.<br>
<br>
3.3) That's a school for little girls.<br>
</p>
<br>
このような曖昧さは2節で説明したような単項タンルの曖昧さとはきわめて異なる。われわれは「女子の学校」というのが「女子が生徒であるような学校」であり、「女子が教師であるような学校」であったり「女子が学校そのもの(!)」ではないことを理解している。<br>
同様に、われわれは「小さな女子」を「彼女自身が小さいような女子」であるとも理解している。先ほどの曖昧さは、連節の曖昧さなのだ。<br>
「女子の学校」がグループで「小さな」はその「女子の学校」の種類を特定するのか？あるいは「小さな女子」がグループで、そのグループが学校の種類を特定するのか？<br>
日本語の話し言葉ではイントネーションを変化させたり[訳者注：これを「句音調」という。]、グループを示すリズムを誇張することなどで区別を付け、書き言葉では区別されないままになっている。
<p>This ambiguity is quite different from the simple tanru ambiguity
described in Section 2. We understand that ``girls' school'' means ``a
school where girls are the students'', and not ``a school where girls
are the teachers'' or ``a school which is a girl'' (!). Likewise, we
understand that ``little girl'' means ``girl who is small''. This is an
ambiguity of grouping. Is ``girls' school'' to be taken as a unit, with
``little'' specifying the type of girls' school? Or is ``little girl''
to be taken as a unit, specifying the type of school? In English
speech, different tones of voice, or exaggerated speech rhythm showing
the grouping, are used to make the distinction; English writing usually
leaves it unrepresented.<br></p>
<br>
ロジバンでは、<span style="font-weight: bold;">いかなる目的でもイントネーションが用いられることはない。</span>代わりに明示的な単語がその役割を果たす。<br>
"bo"というシマヴォ（セルマホ selma'o の BO に属する）をもっとも密接に関係している2つのブリヴラの間に配置することができる。<br>
したがって、例文3.2のロジバンへの訳は、<br>
<br>
<span style="font-weight: bold;">3.4) ta cmalu nixli bo ckule</span> それは小さな <女子の-学校> だ。<br>
例文3.3は、
<span style="font-weight: bold;">3.5) ta cmalu bo nixli ckule</span> それは <小さな-女子> の学校だ。<br>
というふうに訳されるだろう。<br>
<p>Lojban makes no use of tones of voice for any purpose; explicit words
are used to do the work. The cmavo ``bo'' (which belongs to selma'o BO)
may be placed between the two brivla which are most closely associated.
Therefore, a Lojban translation of Example 3.2 would be:<br>
<br>
3.4) ta cmalu nixli bo ckule<br>
That is-a-small girl -- school.<br>
Example 3.3 might be translated:<br>
3.5) ta cmalu bo nixli ckule<br>
That is-a-small -- girl school.<br></p>
<br>
このハイフンの記法は一般的な使われ方ではないことに注意されたい。<br>
<p>The ``bo'' is represented in the literal translation by a hyphen
because in written English a hyphen is sometimes used for the same
purpose: ``a big dog-catcher'' would be quite different from a
``big-dog catcher'' (presumably someone who catches only big dogs).<br></p>
<br>
例文3.4と例文3.5を分析していくと、タンルの中でタンルが入れ子になっていることが分かる。<br>
例文3.4では中心的なタンルは、セルタウである"cmalu"とテルタウである"nixli bo ckule"で構成されている。テルタウはそれ自体がセルタウである"nixli"とテルタウである"ckule"からなるタンルでもある。<br>
例文3.5では逆に、それ自体がタンルである"cmalu bo nixli"がセルタウで、"ckule"はテルタウである。<br>
このタンルの入れ子構造は、後に説明されるより複雑なタイプのすべてのセルブリを形作る基礎となる。<br>
<p>Analysis of Example 3.4 and Example 3.5 reveals a tanru nested within a
tanru. In Example 3.4, the main tanru has a seltau of ``cmalu'' and a
tertau of ``nixli bo ckule''; the tertau is itself a tanru with
``nixli'' as the seltau and ``ckule'' as the tertau. In Example 3.5, on
the other hand, the seltau is ``cmalu bo nixli'' (itself a tanru),
whereas the tertau is ``ckule''. This structure of tanru nested within
tanru forms the basis for all the more complex types of selbri that
will be explained below.<br></p>
<br>
例文3.6を考えてみよう。何を意味しているだろうか？<br>
<p>What about Example 3.6? What does it mean?<br></p>
<br>
3.6) ta cmalu nixli ckule<br>
That is-a-small girl school.<br>
The rules of Lojban do not leave this sentence ambiguous, as the rules
of English do with Example 3.1. The choice made by the language
designers is to say that Example 3.6 means the same as Example 3.5.
This is true no matter what three brivla are used: the leftmost two are
always grouped together. This rule is called the ``left-grouping
rule''. Left-grouping in seemingly ambiguous structures is quite common
--- though not universal --- in other contexts in Lojban.<br>
Another way to express the English meaning of Example 3.4 and Example
3.5, using parentheses to mark grouping, is:<br>
<br>
3.7) ta cmalu nixli bo ckule<br>
That is-a-small type-of (girl type-of
school).<br>
<br>
3.8) ta cmalu bo nixli ckule<br>
That is-a-(small type-of girl) type-of
school.<br>
Because ``type-of'' is implicit in the Lojban tanru form, it has no
Lojban equivalent.<br>
<br>
Note: It is perfectly legal, though pointless, to insert ``bo'' into a
simple tanru:<br>
<br>
3.9) ta klama bo jubme<br>
That is-a goer -- table<br>
is a legal Lojban bridi that means exactly the same thing as Example
2.8, and is ambiguous in exactly the same ways. The cmavo ``bo'' serves
only to resolve grouping ambiguity: it says nothing about the more
basic ambiguity present in all tanru.<br>
4. Complex tanru grouping<br>
<br>
If one element of a tanru can be another tanru, why not both elements?<br>
<br>
4.1) do mutce bo barda gerku bo kavbu<br>
You are-a-(very type-of large) (dog
type-of capturer).<br>
You are a very large dog-catcher.<br>
In Example 4.1, the selbri is a tanru with seltau ``mutce bo barda''
and tertau ``gerku bo kavbu''. It is worth emphasizing once again that
this tanru has the same fundamental ambiguity as all other Lojban
tanru: the sense in which the ``dog type-of capturer'' is said to be
``very type-of large'' is not precisely specified. Presumably it is his
body which is large, but theoretically it could be one of his other
properties.<br>
<br>
We will now justify the title of this chapter by exploring the
ramifications of the phrase ``pretty little girls' school'', an
expansion of the tanru used in Section 3 to four brivla. (Although this
example has been used in the Loglan Project almost since the beginning
--- it first appeared in Quine's book Word and Object (1960) --- it is
actually a mediocre example because of the ambiguity of English
``pretty''; it can mean ``beautiful'', the sense intended here, or it
can mean ``very''. Lojban ``melbi'' is not subject to this ambiguity:
it means only ``beautiful''.) Here are four ways to group this phrase:<br>
<br>
4.2) ta melbi cmalu<br>
nixli ckule<br>
That is-a-((pretty type-of little)<br>
type-of girl) type-of school.<br>
That is a school for girls who are
beautifully small.<br>
<br>
4.3) ta melbi cmalu nixli bo ckule<br>
That is-a-(pretty type-of little) (girl
type-of school).<br>
That is a girls' school which is
beautifully small.<br>
<br>
4.4) ta melbi cmalu bo nixli<br>
ckule<br>
That is-a-(pretty type-of (little
type-of girl))<br>
type-of school.<br>
That is a school for small girls who are
beautiful.<br>
<br>
4.5) ta melbi cmalu bo<br>
nixli bo ckule<br>
That is-a-pretty type-of (little type-of<br>
(girl type-of school)).<br>
That is a small school for girls which
is beautiful.<br>
Example 4.5 uses a construction which has not been seen before: ``cmalu
bo nixli bo ckule'', with two consecutive uses of ``bo'' between
brivla. The rule for multiple ``bo'' constructions is the opposite of
the rule when no ``bo'' is present at all: the last two are grouped
together. Not surprisingly, this is called the ``right-grouping rule'',
and it is associated with every use of ``bo'' in the language.
Therefore,<br>
4.6) ta cmalu bo nixli bo ckule<br>
That is-a-little type-of (girl type-of
school).<br>
means the same as Example 3.4, not Example 3.5. This rule may seem
peculiar at first, but one of its consequences is that ``bo'' is never
necessary between the first two elements of any of the complex tanru
presented so far: all of Examples 4.2 through 4.5 could have ``bo''
inserted between ``melbi'' and ``cmalu'' with no change in meaning.<br>
5. Complex tanru with ``ke'' and ``ke'e''<br>
<br>
The following cmavo are discussed in this section:<br>
<br>
ke KE start grouping<br>
ke'e
KEhE end grouping<br>
There is, in fact, a fifth grouping of ``pretty little girls' school''
that cannot be expressed with the resources explained so far. To handle
it, we must introduce the grouping parentheses cmavo, ``ke'' and
``ke'e'' (belonging to selma'o KE and KEhE respectively). Any portion
of a selbri sandwiched between these two cmavo is taken to be a single
tanru component, independently of what is adjacent to it. Thus, Example
4.2 can be rewritten in any of the following ways:<br>
5.1) ta ke melbi cmalu ke'e nixli ckule<br>
That is-a-( pretty little ) girl school.<br>
<br>
5.2) ta ke ke melbi cmalu ke'e nixli ke'e ckule<br>
That is-a-( ( pretty little ) girl )
school.<br>
<br>
5.3) ta ke ke ke melbi cmalu ke'e nixli ke'e ckule
ke'e<br>
That is-a-( ( ( pretty little ) girl )
school ).<br>
Even more versions could be created simply by placing any number of
``ke'' cmavo at the beginning of the selbri, and a like number of
``ke'e'' cmavo at its end. Obviously, all of these are a waste of
breath once the left-grouping rule has been grasped. However, the
following is equivalent to Example 4.4 and may be easier to understand:<br>
<br>
5.4) ta melbi ke cmalu nixli ke'e<br>
ckule<br>
That is-a-(pretty type-of ( little
type-of girl ))<br>
type-of school.<br>
Likewise, a ``ke'' and ``ke'e'' version of Example 4.3 would be:<br>
<br>
5.5) ta melbi cmalu<br>
ke nixli ckule [ke'e]<br>
That is-a-(pretty type-of little)<br>
( girl type-of school ).<br>
The final ``ke'e'' is given in square brackets here to indicate that it
can be elided. It is always possible to elide ``ke'e'' at the end of
the selbri, making Example 5.5 as terse as Example 4.3.<br>
<br>
Now how about that fifth grouping? It is<br>
<br>
5.6) ta melbi<br>
ke cmalu nixli ckule [ke'e]<br>
That is-a-pretty type-of<br>
( (little type-of girl) type-of school )<br>
That is a beautiful school for small
girls.<br>
Example 5.6 is distinctly different in meaning from any of Examples 4.2
through 4.5. Note that within the ``ke ... ke'e'' parentheses, the
left-grouping rule is applied to ``cmalu nixli ckule''.<br>
It is perfectly all right to mix ``bo'' and ``ke ... ke'e'' in a single
selbri. For instance, Example 4.5, which in pure ``ke ... ke'e'' form is<br>
<br>
5.7) ta melbi<br>
ke cmalu ke nixli ckule [ke'e] [ke'e]<br>
That is-a-pretty type-of<br>
( little type-of ( girl type-of school ) ).<br>
can equivalently be expressed as:<br>
5.8) ta melbi<br>
ke cmalu nixli bo ckule [ke'e]<br>
That is-a-pretty<br>
type-of ( little type-of (girl type-of school) ).<br>
and in many other different forms as well.<br>
6. Logical connection within tanru<br>
<br>
The following cmavo are discussed in this section:<br>
<br>
je JA tanru logical ``and''<br>
ja JA tanru logical
``or''<br>
joi JOI mixed mass ``and''<br>
gu'e
GUhA tanru forethought logical ``and''<br>
gi GI forethought
connection separator<br>
Consider the English phrase ``big red dog''. How shall this be rendered
as a Lojban tanru? The naive attempt:<br>
6.1) barda xunre gerku<br>
(big type-of red) type-of dog<br>
will not do, as it means a dog whose redness is big, in whatever way
redness might be described as ``big''. Nor is<br>
6.2) barda xunre bo gerku<br>
big type-of (red type-of dog)<br>
much better. After all, the straightforward understanding of the
English phrase is that the dog is big as compared with other dogs, not
merely as compared with other red dogs. In fact, the bigness and
redness are independent properties of the dog, and only obscure rules
of English adjective ordering prevent us from saying ``red big dog''.<br>
The Lojban approach to this problem is to introduce the cmavo ``je'',
which is one of the many equivalents of English ``and''. A big red dog
is one that is both big and red, and we can say:<br>
<br>
6.3) barda je xunre gerku<br>
(big and red) type-of dog<br>
Of course,<br>
<br>
6.4) xunre je barda gerku<br>
(red and big) type-of dog<br>
is equally satisfactory and means the same thing. As these examples
indicate, joining two brivla with ``je'' makes them a unit for tanru
purposes. However, explicit grouping with ``bo'' or ``ke ... ke'e''
associates brivla more closely than ``je'' does:<br>
6.5) barda je pelxu bo xunre gerku<br>
barda je ke pelxu xunre ke'e gerku<br>
(big and (yellow type-of red)) dog<br>
big yellowish-red dog<br>
With no grouping indicators, we get:<br>
<br>
6.6) barda je pelxu xunre gerku<br>
((big and yellow) type-of red) type-of
dog<br>
biggish- and yellowish-red dog<br>
which again raises the question of Example 6.1: what is does
``biggish-red'' mean?<br>
Unlike ``bo'' and ``ke ... ke'e'', ``je'' is useful as well as merely
legal within simple tanru. It may be used to partly resolve the
ambiguity of simple tanru:<br>
<br>
6.7) ta blanu je zdani<br>
that is-blue and is-a-house<br>
definitely refers to something which is both blue and is a house, and
not to any of the other possible interpretations of simple ``blanu
zdani''. Furthermore, ``blanu zdani'' refers to something which is blue
in the way that houses are blue; ``blanu je zdani'' has no such
implication --- the blueness of a ``blanu je zdani'' is independent of
its houseness.<br>
With the addition of ``je'', many more versions of ``pretty little
girls' school'' are made possible: see Section 16 for a complete list.<br>
<br>
A subtle point in the semantics of tanru like Example 6.3 needs special
elucidation. There are at least two possible interpretations of:<br>
<br>
6.8) ta melbi je nixli ckule<br>
That is-a-(beautiful and girl) type-of
school.<br>
It can be understood as:<br>
<br>
6.9) That is a girls' school and a beautiful school.<br>
or as:<br>
6.10) That is a school for things<br>
which are both girls and beautiful.<br>
The interpretation specified by Example 6.9 treats the tanru as a sort
of abbreviation for:<br>
6.11) ta ke melbi ckule ke'e<br>
je ke nixli ckule [ke'e]<br>
That is-a-( beautiful type-of school )<br>
and ( girl type-of school )<br>
whereas the interpretation specified by Example 6.10 does not. This is
a kind of semantic ambiguity for which Lojban does not compel a firm
resolution. The way in which the school is said to be of type
``beautiful and girl'' may entail that it is separately a beautiful
school and a girls' school; but the alternative interpretation, that
the members of the school are beautiful and girls, is also possible.
Still another interpretation is:<br>
6.12) That is a school for beautiful
things<br>
and also for girls.<br>
so while the logical connectives help to resolve the meaning of tanru,
they by no means compel a single meaning in and of themselves.<br>
In general, logical connectives within tanru cannot undergo the formal
manipulations that are possible with the related logical connectives
that exist outside tanru; see Chapter 14 for further details.<br>
<br>
The logical connective ``je'' is only one of the fourteen logical
connectives that Lojban provides. Here are a few examples of some of
the others:<br>
<br>
6.13) le bajra cu jinga ja te jinga<br>
the runner(s) is/are winner(s) or
loser(s).<br>
<br>
6.14) blanu naja lenku skapi<br>
(blue only-if cold) skin<br>
skin which is blue only if it is cold<br>
<br>
6.15) xamgu jo cortu nuntavla<br>
(good if-and-only-if short) speech<br>
speech which is good if (and only if) it
is short<br>
<br>
6.16) vajni ju pluka nuntavla<br>
(important whether-or-not pleasing)
event-of-talking<br>
speech which is important, whether or
not it is pleasing<br>
In Example 6.13, ``ja'' is grammatically equivalent to ``je'' but means
``or'' (more precisely, ``and/or''). Likewise, ``naja'' means ``only
if'' in Example 6.14, ``jo'' means ``if and only if'' in Example 6.15,
and ``ju'' means ``whether or not'' in Example 6.16.<br>
<br>
Now consider the following example:<br>
<br>
6.17) ricfu je blanu jabo crino<br>
rich and (blue or green)<br>
which illustrates a new grammatical feature: the use of both ``ja'' and
``bo'' between tanru components. The two cmavo combine to form a
compound whose meaning is that of ``ja'' but which groups more closely;
``jabo'' is to ``ja'' as plain ``bo'' is to no cmavo at all. However,
both ``ja'' and ``jabo'' group less closely than ``bo'' does:<br>
6.18) ricfu je blanu jabo crino bo blanu<br>
rich and (blue or green -- blue)<br>
rich and (blue or greenish-blue)<br>
An alternative form of Example 6.17 is:<br>
<br>
6.19) ricfu je ke blanu ja crino [ke'e]<br>
rich and ( blue or green )<br>
In addition to the logical connectives, there are also a variety of
non-logical connectives, grammatically equivalent to the logical ones.
The only one with a well-understood meaning in tanru contexts is
``joi'', which is the kind of ``and'' that denotes a mixture:<br>
6.20) ti blanu joi xunre bolci<br>
This is-a-(blue and red) ball.<br>
The ball described is neither solely red nor solely blue, but probably
striped or in some other way exhibiting a combination of the two
colors. Example 6.20 is distinct from:<br>
<br>
6.21) ti blanu xunre bolci<br>
This is a bluish-red ball<br>
which would be a ball whose color is some sort of purple tending toward
red, since ``xunre'' is the more important of the two components. On
the other hand,<br>
6.22) ti blanu je xunre bolci<br>
This is a (blue and red) ball<br>
is probably self-contradictory, seeming to claim that the ball is
independently both blu and red at the same time, although some sensible
interpretation may exist.<br>
Finally, just as English ``and'' has the variant form ``both ... and'',
so ``je'' between tanru components has the variant form ``gu'e ...
gi'', where ``gu'e'' is placed before the components and ``gi'' between
them:<br>
<br>
6.23) gu'e barda gi xunre gerku<br>
(both big and red) type-of dog<br>
is equivalent in meaning to Example 6.3. For each logical connective
related to ``je'', there is a corresponding connective related to
``gu'e ... gi'' in a systematic way.<br>
The portion of a ``gu'e ... gi'' construction before the ``gi'' is a
full selbri, and may use any of the selbri resources including ``je''
logical connections. After the ``gi'', logical connections are taken to
be wider in scope than the ``gu'e ... gi'', which has in effect the
same scope as ``bo'':<br>
<br>
6.23) gu'e barda je xunre gi gerku ja
mlatu<br>
(both (big and red) and dog) or cat<br>
something which is either big, red, and
a dog,<br>
or else a cat<br>
leaves ``mlatu'' outside the ``gu'e--gi'' construction. The scope of
the ``gi'' arm extends only to a single brivla or to two or more brivla
connected with ``bo'' or ``ke--ke'e''.<br>
7. Linked sumti: ``be--bei--be'o''<br>
<br>
The following cmavo are discussed in this section:<br>
<br>
be BE linked sumti marker<br>
bei BEI linked sumti separator<br>
be'o
BEhO linked sumti terminator<br>
The question of the place structures of selbri has been glossed over so
far. This chapter does not attempt to treat place structure issues in
detail; they are discussed in Chapter 9. One grammatical structure
related to places belongs here, however. In simple sentences such as
Example 1.1, the place structure of the selbri is simply the defined
place structure of the gismu ``mamta''. What about more complex selbri?<br>
<br>
For tanru, the place structure rule is simple: the place structure of a
tanru is always the place structure of its tertau. Thus, the place
structure of ``blanu zdani'' is that of ``zdani'': the x1 place is a
house or nest, and the x2 place is its occupants.<br>
<br>
What about the places of ``blanu''? Is there any way to get them into
the act? In fact, ``blanu'' has only one place, and this is merged, as
it were, with the x1 place of ``zdani''. It is whatever is in the x1
place that is being characterized as blue-for-a-house. But if we
replace ``blanu'' with ``xamgu'', we get:<br>
<br>
7.1) ti xamgu zdani<br>
this is-a-good house.<br>
This is a good (for someone, by some
standard) house.<br>
Since ``xamgu'' has three places (x1, the good thing; x2, the person
for whom it is good; and x3, the standard of goodness), Example 7.1
necessarily omits information about the last two: there is no room for
them. Room can be made, however!<br>
<br>
7.2) ti xamgu be do bei mi [be'o] zdani<br>
this is-a-good ( for you by-standard me
) house.<br>
This is a house that is good for you by
my standards.<br>
Here, the gismu ``xamgu'' has been followed by the cmavo ``be'' (of
selma'o BE), which signals that one or more sumti follows. These sumti
are not part of the overall bridi place structure, but fill the places
of the brivla they are attached to, starting with x2. If there is more
than one sumti, they are separated by the cmavo ``bei'' (of selma'o
BEI), and the list of sumti is terminated by the elidable terminator
``be'o'' (of selma'o BEhO).<br>
Grammatically, a brivla with sumti linked to it in this fashion plays
the same role in tanru as a simple brivla. To illustrate, here is a
fully fleshed-out version of Example 3.4, with all places filled in:<br>
<br>
7.3) ti cmalu be le ka canlu<br>
bei lo'e ckule be'o<br>
nixli be li mu<br>
bei lo merko be'o bo<br>
ckule la bryklyn. loi pemci<br>
le mela nu,IORK. prenu<br>
le jecta<br>
This is a small (in-dimension the
property-of volume<br>
by-standard the-typical school)<br>
(girl (of-years the-number five<br>
by-standard some American-thing)<br>
school) in-Brooklyn with-subject poems<br>
for-audience New-York persons<br>
with-operator the state.<br>
This is a school, small in volume
compared to the<br>
typical school, pertaining to five-year-old<br>
girls (by American standards), in Brooklyn,<br>
teaching poetry to the New York community<br>
and operated by the state.<br>
Here the three places of ``cmalu'', the three of ``nixli'', and the
four of ``ckule'' are fully specified. Since the places of ``ckule''
are the places of the bridi as a whole, it was not necessary to link
the sumti which follow ``ckule''. It would have been legal to do so,
however:<br>
<br>
7.4) mi klama be le zarci bei le zdani [be'o]<br>
I go (to-the market from-the house).<br>
means the same as<br>
7.5) mi klama le zarci le zdani<br>
I go to-the market from-the house.<br>
No matter how complex a tanru gets, the last brivla always dictates the
place structure: the place structure of<br>
7.6) melbi je cmalu nixli bo ckule<br>
a (pretty and little) (girl school)<br>
a school for girls which is both
beautiful and small<br>
is simply that of ``ckule''. (The sole exception to this rule is
discussed in Section 8.)<br>
It is possible to precede linked sumti by the place structure ordering
tags ``fe'', ``fi'', ``fo'', and ``fu'' (of selma'o FA, discussed
further in Chapter 9), which serve to explicitly specify the x2, x3,
x4, and x5 places respectively. Normally, the place following the
``be'' is the x2 place and the other places follow in order. If it
seems convenient to change the order, however, it can be accomplished
as follows:<br>
<br>
7.7) ti xamgu be fi mi bei fe do [be'o] zdani<br>
this is-a-good ( by-standard me for you
) house<br>
which is equivalent in meaning to Example 7.2. Note that the order of
``be'', ``bei'', and ``be'o'' does not change; only the inserted ``fi''
tells us that ``mi'' is the x3 place (and correspondingly, the inserted
``fe'' tells us that ``do'' is the x2 place). Changing the order of
sumti is often done to match the order of another language, or for
emphasis or rhythm.<br>
Of course, using FA cmavo makes it easy to specify one place while
omitting a previous place:<br>
<br>
7.8) ti xamgu be fi mi [be'o] zdani<br>
this is-a-good (by-standard me) house<br>
This is a good house by my standards.<br>
Similarly, sumti labeled by modal or tense tags can be inserted into
strings of linked sumti just as they can into bridi:<br>
7.9) ta blanu be ga'a mi [be'o] zdani<br>
That is-a-blue ( to-observer me ) house.<br>
That is a blue, as I see it, house.<br>
The meaning of Example 7.9 is slightly different from:<br>
<br>
7.10) ta blanu zdani ga'a mi<br>
That is-a-blue house to-observer me.<br>
That is a blue house, as I see it.<br>
See discussions in Chapter 9 of modals and in Chapter 10 of tenses for
more explanations.<br>
<br>
The terminator ``be'o'' is almost always elidable: however, if the
selbri belongs to a description, then a relative clause following it
will attach to the last linked sumti unless ``be'o'' is used, in which
case it will attach to the outer description:<br>
<br>
7.11) le xamgu be do noi barda cu zdani<br>
The good-thing for you (who are-large)
is-a-house.<br>
<br>
7.12) le xamgu be do be'o noi barda cu zdani<br>
The (good-thing for you) (which
is-large) is-a-house<br>
(Relative clauses are explained in Chapter 8.)<br>
In other cases, however, ``be'o'' cannot be elided if ``ku'' has also
been elided:<br>
<br>
7.13) le xamgu be le ctuca [ku] be'o zdani<br>
the good (for the teacher ) house<br>
requires either ``ku'' or ``be'o'', and since there is only one
occurrence of ``be'', the ``be'o'' must match it, whereas it may be
confusing which occurrence of ``le'' the ``ku'' terminates (in fact the
second one is correct).<br>
8. Inversion of tanru: ``co''<br>
<br>
The following cmavo is discussed in this section:<br>
<br>
co CO tanru inversion marker<br>
The standard order of Lojban tanru, whereby the modifier precedes what
it modifies, is very natural to English-speakers: we talk of ``blue
houses'', not of ``houses blue''. In other languages, however, such
matters are differently arranged, and Lojban supports this reverse
order (tertau before seltau) by inserting the particle ``co''. Example
8.1 and Example 8.2 mean exactly the same thing:<br>
8.1) ta blanu zdani<br>
That is-a-blue type-of-house.<br>
That is a blue house.<br>
<br>
8.2) ta zdani co blanu<br>
That is-a-house of-type blue.<br>
That is a blue house.<br>
This change is called ``tanru inversion''. In tanru inversion, the
element before ``co'' (``zdani'' in Example 8.2) is the tertau, and the
element following ``co'' (``blanu'') in Example 8.2) is the seltau.<br>
The meaning, and more specifically, the place structure, of a tanru is
not affected by inversion: the place structure of ``zdani co blanu'' is
still that of ``zdani''. However, the existence of inversion in a
selbri has a very special effect on any sumti which follow that selbri.
Instead of being interpreted as filling places of the selbri, they
actually fill the places (starting with x2) of the seltau. In Section
7, we saw how to fill interior places with ``be ... bei ... be'o'', and
in fact Example 8.3 and Example 8.4 have the same meaning:<br>
<br>
8.3) mi klama be le zarci bei le zdani be'o<br>
troci<br>
I am-a-(goer to the market from the
house)<br>
type-of trier.<br>
I try to go to the market from the house.<br>
<br>
8.4) mi troci co klama le zarci le zdani<br>
I am-a-trier<br>
of-type (goer to-the market from-the house).<br>
I try to go to the market from the house.<br>
Example 8.4 is a less deeply nested construction, requiring fewer
cmavo. As a result it is probably easier to understand.<br>
Note that in Lojban ``trying to go'' is expressed using ``troci'' as
the tertau. The reason is that ``trying to go'' is a ``going type of
trying'', not a ``trying type of going''. The trying is more
fundamental than the going --- if the attempt fails, we may not have a
going at all.<br>
<br>
Any sumti which precede a selbri with an inverted tanru fill the places
of the selbri (i.e., the places of the tertau) in the ordinary way. In
Example 8.4, ``mi'' fills the x1 place of ``troci co klama'', which is
the x1 place of ``troci''. The other places of the selbri remain
unfilled. The trailing sumti ``le zarci'' and ``le zdani'' do not
occupy selbri places, despite appearances.<br>
<br>
As a result, the regular mechanisms (involving selma'o VOhA and GOhI,
explained in Chapter 7) for referring to individual sumti of a bridi
cannot refer to any of the trailing places of Example 8.4, because they
are not really ``sumti of the bridi'' at all.<br>
<br>
When inverting a more complex tanru, it is possible to invert it only
at the most general modifier-modified pair. The only possible inversion
of Example 3.4, for instance, is:<br>
<br>
8.5) ta nixli [bo] ckule co cmalu<br>
that (is-a-girl type-of school) of-type
little.<br>
That's a girls' school which is small.<br>
Note that the ``bo'' of Example 3.4 is optional in Example 8.5, because
``co'' groups more loosely than any other cmavo used in tanru,
including none at all. Not even ``ke ... ke'e'' parentheses can
encompass a ``co'':<br>
8.6) ta cmalu ke nixli ckule [ke'e]<br>
co melbi<br>
that is-a-(little type-of (girl type-of
school))<br>
of-type pretty.<br>
That's a small school for girls which is
beautiful.<br>
In Example 8.6, the ``ke'e'' is automatically inserted before the
``co'' rather than at its usual place at the end of the selbri. As a
result, there is a simple and mechanical rule for removing ``co'' from
any selbri: change ``A co B'' to ``ke B ke'e A''. (At the same time,
any sumti following the selbri must be transformed into ``be ... bei
... be'o'' form and attached following B.) Therefore,<br>
8.7) ckule co melbi nixli<br>
school of-type pretty girl<br>
school for beautiful girls<br>
means the same as:<br>