Indicates thousands in Greek alphabetic numbering, eg. 2021 is written
@@ -42,258 +69,557 @@
`,
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'\u{0376}': `
Ͷ
`,
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+
+
+
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'\u{0377}': `
ͷ
`,
+
+
+
+
+
'\u{037A}': `
ͺ
`,
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+
+
+
+
'\u{037B}': `
ͻ
`,
+
+
+
+
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'\u{037C}': `
ͼ
`,
+
+
+
+
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'\u{037D}': `
ͽ
`,
+
+
+
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+
'\u{037E}': `
;
Equivalent to '?' in English.
Normalisation changes this character to ; [U+003B SEMICOLON], which should be used instead of this.
`,
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+
+
+
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'\u{037F}': `
Ϳ
`,
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+
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'\u{0384}': `
΄
Indicates location of primary stress. If a vowel is composed of 2 characters, the second carries the accent, eg. νούμεροnoýmero. An accent can appear on the last, second to last, or third to last syllables (eg. εποχήepoxí, μέτροmétro and τονόμετροtonómetro.
This accent is dropped for upper case letters if the whole word is in upper case.
`,
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'\u{0385}': `
΅
`,
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'\u{0386}': `
Ά
`,
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'\u{0387}': `
·
Equivalent to semi-colon in English.
Normalisation changes this character to · [U+00B7 MIDDLE DOT], which should be used instead of this.
`,
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'\u{0388}': `
Έ
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See the lowercase equivalent for details.
`,
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'\u{0389}': `
Ή
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See the lowercase equivalent for details.
`,
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'\u{038A}': `
Ί
+
See the lowercase equivalent for details.
`,
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+
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'\u{038C}': `
Ό
+
See the lowercase equivalent for details.
`,
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+
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'\u{038E}': `
Ύ
+
See the lowercase equivalent for details.
`,
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'\u{038F}': `
Ώ
+
See the lowercase equivalent for details.
`,
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'\u{0390}': `
ΐ
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i – in this form of υ [U+03C5 GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON] the combination of the acute and diaeresis indicates a stressed vowel after a hiatus, eg.
+
i – in this form of υ [U+03C5 GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON] the combination of the acute and diaeresis indicates a stressed vowel after a hiatus, eg.
ευφυΐα
Also known as the iota subscript. Represents the former offglide for what were long diphthongs in ancient Greek, and in decomposed text can be written using ͅ [U+0345 COMBINING GREEK YPOGEGRAMMENI]. It is used with 3 vowel letters, α, η, and ω, ie.
@@ -1812,60 +3745,125 @@
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// OTHER PUNCTUATION
'\u{0028}': `
Used in Greek as a semicolon, but infrequently enough that it is not included in the standard keyboard.
This should be used rather than · [U+0387 GREEK ANO TELEIA], which normalises to this character.
`,
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'\u{00BB}': `
»
`,
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'\u{2010}': `
‐
`,
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+
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'\u{2011}': `
‑
`,
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'\u{02B9}': `
ʹ
Positioned to the right of a sequence of letters, this indicates that the letters represent numbers in the Greek additive system, eg.
@@ -1874,28 +3872,58 @@
Greek is an alphabet. Letters typically represent a consonant or vowel sound. See the table to the right for a brief overview of features for the modern Greek orthography.
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+
Greek is an alphabet. Letters typically represent a consonant or vowel sound. See the table to the right for a brief overview of features for the modern Greek orthography.
+
Modern Greek comes in 2 flavours: monotonic and polytonic. Monotonic Greek generally uses only the tonos diacritic to show the location of emphasis in a word, although it may also use the dialytika occasionally to separate vowel sounds. Polytonic Greek attaches multiple diacritics more often.
-
Greek letters are in a sense encoded twice, since there is a sizeable set of precomposed characters, but it is also always possible to write equivalent decomposed sequences.
+
Greek letters are in a sense encoded twice, since there is a sizeable set of precomposed characters, but it is also always possible to write equivalent decomposed sequences.
+
Greek text runs left-to-right in horizontal lines.
-
Greek text runs left-to-right in horizontal lines.
Words are separated by spaces.
-
The script is bicameral. The shapes of the upper and lowercase forms are typically the same.
-
Modern Greek has 17 consonant letters, plus a special lowercase, word-final form of the letter sigma.
-
There are 7 basic vowel letters, but they are commonly combined to produce additional sounds, and can take tonos and/or dialytika diacritics. Polytonic Greek can be found occasionally in modern texts, and that adds another 110 combinations of vowel plus diacritic to the repertoire.
-
Numbers use ASCII digits.
+
+
The script is bicameral. The shapes of the upper and lowercase forms are typically the same.
+
+
Modern Greek has 17 consonant letters, plus a special lowercase, word-final form of the letter sigma. ❯ consonants
+
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Modern Greek has 7 basic vowel letters, but they are commonly combined to produce additional sounds, and can take tonos and/or dialytika diacritics, for which there are separate code points.
+
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Polytonic Greek can be found occasionally in modern texts, and that adds another 110 combinations of vowel plus diacritic to the repertoire.
+
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Numbers use ASCII digits.
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The visual forms of letters don't usually interact.
@@ -252,7 +261,10 @@
Possible
Symbols
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+Show€
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@@ -464,6 +476,120 @@
Vowels
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Basic vowels
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The basic set of vowels used in modern Greek includes the following.
+ι␣υ␣η␣ε␣ο␣ω␣α
+Ι␣Υ␣Η␣Ε␣Ο␣Ω␣Α
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+
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Digraphs
+
In Greek, pairs of vowel letters may represent a single sound, or something other than two consecutive basic vowel sounds. These spellings hark back to Classical Greek.
+
These are vowels written as digraphs in modern Greek.
+
+ει␣οι␣υι␣ου␣αι
+
+
Three more digraphs are pronounced with v before a vowel or voiced consonant, and f elsewhere.
+
+ηυ␣ευ␣αυ
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+
Polytonic Greek has additional digraphs involving iota.
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Monotonic vowel diacritics
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Tonos
+
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Stressed syllables carry a tonos diacritic. This can be written by following the above vowel characters with ́ [U+0301 COMBINING ACUTE ACCENT], but Unicode also has a set of precomposed characters.
+
+ή␣ύ␣ί␣ό␣ώ␣έ␣ά
+Ή␣Ύ␣Ί␣Ό␣Ώ␣Έ␣Ά
+
+
The diacritic appears to the left of the uppercase letters. (The uppercase letters shown here are only used if the first letter of a word is capitalised and that letter happens to be a vowel with a tonos. If the whole word is uppercased, the tonos is dropped. See transforms.)
+
If the stress falls on a digraph, the second letter carries the tonos, eg.
+αίμα
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Dialytika
+
+
Monotonic Greek on occasion uses a dialytika diacritic to indicate that two adjacent vowel letters don't form a digraph, eg. the first 2 vowels in this example are pronounced ai, rather than e
+καϊμάν
+
+
Again, it is possible to use ̈ [U+0308 COMBINING DIAERESIS] with the basic vowel or vowel+tonos, or to use one of the following precomposed characters.
+
+ϊ␣ϋ␣ΰ␣ΐ
+Ϊ␣Ϋ
+
+
If the first vowel in what looks like a digraph has a tonos diacritic, this signals that it is not a digraph, and there is no need to use a dialytika, eg.
+τρία
+
+
+
Tonos and dialytika may appear together above a vowel that is stressed, in which case the tonos appears either between or above the dialytika, eg.
+ευφυΐα
+
+
+
Unlike tonos, dialytika is not dropped for capital letters, but may be produced from a tonos in some circumstances (see transforms).
In polytonic Greek, stressed syllables are identified using one of 3 diacritics: oxia (called tonos in monotonic Greek), varia, or perispomeni. The original distinctions represented by these 3 marks are no longer relevant to modern Greek, and they simply reflect much older spellings. There are precomposed characters for most combinations, but decomposed sequences use ́ [U+0301 COMBINING ACUTE ACCENT] for oxia and ̀ [U+0300 COMBINING GRAVE ACCENT] for varia. Perispomeni can be rendered as a circumflex, a tilde, or occasionally a macron, so a special code point is available for it: ͂ [U+0342 COMBINING GREEK PERISPOMENI].
+
A vowel that begins a word carries one of two breathing marks, where the rough breathing mark (dasia) indicates the presence of h, and the smooth (psili) its absence. (h is no longer used in modern Greek.) ̔ [U+0314 COMBINING REVERSED COMMA ABOVE] represents the rough breathing mark, and ̓ [U+0313 COMBINING COMMA ABOVE] the smooth breathing mark. The code point ̓ [U+0343 COMBINING GREEK KORONIS] also represents the smooth breathing mark, but exists for compatibility with other encodings and should not be used.u,#Greek
+
The ypogegrammeni (or iota subscript) represents the former offglide for what were long diphthongs in ancient Greek, and in decomposed text can be written using ͅ [U+0345 COMBINING GREEK YPOGEGRAMMENI]. It is used with 3 vowel letters, α, η, and ω, ie. ᾳῃῳ
+
Polytonic Greek also uses ̈ [U+0308 COMBINING DIAERESIS] to indicate that two adjacent vowels receive equal weight.
+
The Greek Extended Unicode block provides precomposed characters for most of the combinations of Greek letters and diacritics. The precomposed code points are produced by normalisation.
In addition to the characters just listed, there are a set that replicate characters in monotonic Greek, but change tonos in the character name to oxia. These shouldn't be used, since they normalise to characters in the main Greek block (which don't get converted back to these characters).
+Άά␣Έέ␣Ήή␣Ίί␣ΐ␣Όό␣Ύύ␣ΰ␣Ώώ
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Vowel sounds to characters
@@ -667,133 +793,94 @@
Other combinations
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Consonants
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Basic vowels
+
-
The basic set of vowels used in modern Greek includes the following.
-ι␣υ␣η␣ε␣ο␣ω␣α
-Ι␣Υ␣Η␣Ε␣Ο␣Ω␣Α
-
+
+
Modern Greek consonant letters
-
-
Digraphs
-
In Greek, pairs of vowel letters may represent a single sound, or something other than two consecutive basic vowel sounds. These spellings hark back to Classical Greek.
-
These are vowels written as digraphs in modern Greek.
Consonants are sometimes doubled, but the sound is not lengthened as a consquence.
+
-
-
Monotonic vowel diacritics
-
-
Tonos
-
Stressed syllables carry a tonos diacritic. This can be written by following the above vowel characters with ́ [U+0301 COMBINING ACUTE ACCENT], but Unicode also has a set of precomposed characters.
-ή␣ύ␣ί␣ό␣ώ␣έ␣ά
-Ή␣Ύ␣Ί␣Ό␣Ώ␣Έ␣Ά
+
+
Digraphs
+
When they appear together the following digraphs produce voiced sounds. At the beginning of a word only the plosive is pronounced.
+μπ ␣ντ ␣νκ
-
The diacritic appears to the left of the uppercase letters. (The uppercase letters shown here are only used if the first letter of a word is capitalised and that letter happens to be a vowel with a tonos. If the whole word is uppercased, the tonos is dropped. See transforms.)
-
If the stress falls on a digraph, the second letter carries the tonos, eg.
-αίμα
-
+
The 2 digraphs just below are generally pronounced either ɡ, or ʝ before front vowels e and i. When they follow a vowel the nasal is pronounced, giving ŋɡ and ɲɟ.
+γγ␣γκ
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-
Dialytika
-
-
Monotonic Greek on occasion uses a dialytika diacritic to indicate that two adjacent vowel letters don't form a digraph, eg. the first 2 vowels in this example are pronounced ai, rather than e
-καϊμάν
-
-
Again, it is possible to use ̈ [U+0308 COMBINING DIAERESIS] with the basic vowel or vowel+tonos, or to use one of the following precomposed characters.
-ϊ␣ϋ␣ΰ␣ΐ
-Ϊ␣Ϋ
-
-
If the first vowel in what looks like a digraph has a tonos diacritic, this signals that it is not a digraph, and there is no need to use a dialytika, eg.
-τρία
-
-
-
Tonos and dialytika may appear together above a vowel that is stressed, in which case the tonos appears either between or above the dialytika, eg.
-ευφυΐα
-
-
-
Unlike tonos, dialytika is not dropped for capital letters, but may be produced from a tonos in some circumstances (see transforms).
+
+
Polytonic accented rho
-̈́
+
+
Although not a vowel, an initial letter ρ [U+03C1 GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO] can also carry a rough breathing mark. When geminated, the first always has a smooth breathing mark, and the second rough,ws ie. ῤῥ
+
Precomposed characters are available in the Extended Greek block.
In polytonic Greek, stressed syllables are identified using one of 3 diacritics: oxia (called tonos in monotonic Greek), varia, or perispomeni. The original distinctions represented by these 3 marks are no longer relevant to modern Greek, and they simply reflect much older spellings. There are precomposed characters for most combinations, but decomposed sequences use ́ [U+0301 COMBINING ACUTE ACCENT] for oxia and ̀ [U+0300 COMBINING GRAVE ACCENT] for varia. Perispomeni can be rendered as a circumflex, a tilde, or occasionally a macron, so a special code point is available for it: ͂ [U+0342 COMBINING GREEK PERISPOMENI].
-
A vowel that begins a word carries one of two breathing marks, where the rough breathing mark (dasia) indicates the presence of h, and the smooth (psili) its absence. (h is no longer used in modern Greek.) ̔ [U+0314 COMBINING REVERSED COMMA ABOVE] represents the rough breathing mark, and ̓ [U+0313 COMBINING COMMA ABOVE] the smooth breathing mark. The code point ̓ [U+0343 COMBINING GREEK KORONIS] also represents the smooth breathing mark, but exists for compatibility with other encodings and should not be used.u,#Greek
-
The ypogegrammeni (or iota subscript) represents the former offglide for what were long diphthongs in ancient Greek, and in decomposed text can be written using ͅ [U+0345 COMBINING GREEK YPOGEGRAMMENI]. It is used with 3 vowel letters, α, η, and ω, ie. ᾳῃῳ
-
Polytonic Greek also uses ̈ [U+0308 COMBINING DIAERESIS] to indicate that two adjacent vowels receive equal weight.
-
The Greek Extended Unicode block provides precomposed characters for most of the combinations of Greek letters and diacritics. The precomposed code points are produced by normalisation.
In addition to the characters just listed, there are a set that replicate characters in monotonic Greek, but change tonos in the character name to oxia. These shouldn't be used, since they normalise to characters in the main Greek block (which don't get converted back to these characters).
-Άά␣Έέ␣Ήή␣Ίί␣ΐ␣Όό␣Ύύ␣ΰ␣Ώώ
+
The following letters are no longer used in modern Greek text, except that a few are used for the additive counter styles (see cs_additive).
Consonants are sometimes doubled, but the sound is not lengthened as a consquence.
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Digraphs
-
When they appear together the following digraphs produce voiced sounds. At the beginning of a word only the plosive is pronounced.
-μπ ␣ντ ␣νκ
-
-
The 2 digraphs just below are generally pronounced either ɡ, or ʝ before front vowels e and i. When they follow a vowel the nasal is pronounced, giving ŋɡ and ɲɟ.
-γγ␣γκ
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Polytonic accented rho
-
-
-
Although not a vowel, an initial letter ρ [U+03C1 GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO] can also carry a rough breathing mark. When geminated, the first always has a smooth breathing mark, and the second rough,ws ie. ῤῥ
-
Precomposed characters are available in the Extended Greek block.
-
-ῤ␣Ῥῥ
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Archaic letters
-
-
-
The following letters are no longer used in modern Greek text, except that a few are used for the additive counter styles (see cs_additive).
-Ͱ␣ͱ␣Ͳ␣ͳ␣Ͷ␣ͷ␣Ϙ␣ϙ␣Ϛ␣ϛ␣Ϝ␣ϝ␣Ϟ␣ϟ␣Ϡ␣ϡ␣Ϸ␣ϸ␣Ϻ␣ϻ
-
-
@@ -1357,8 +1371,8 @@
Glyph shaping & positioning
Context-based shaping & positioning
The Greek script is not cursive, and generally letters don't interaction. However, the letter sigma in Greek varies in shape, depending on whether it appears in the middle or at the end of a word.
-
-
+
+Two different shapes for sigma, depending on word position.
@@ -1399,10 +1413,22 @@
Case & other character transforms
Greek is bicameral, and applications may need to enable transforms to allow the user to switch between cases.
There are different rules around the use of accents with uppercase Greek letters, depending on whether the context is ALL-CAPS or Titlecase. The following description focuses on modern, monotonic Greek.
-
The tonos accent is only retained for the latter case, ie. words which start with a vowel+tonos when only the first letter of a word is capitalised. When the whole word is capitalised, the tonos is dropped, eg. compare ΈλληναςÉllinas̽GreekΕΛΛΗΝΑΣ
-
The dialytika, on the other hand, is never dropped. A letter with both tonos and dialytika above drops the tonos but keeps the dialytika, eg. compare ευφυΐαeyfyḯaintelligenceΕΥΦΥΪΑ
+
The tonos accent is only retained for the latter case, ie. words which start with a vowel+tonos when only the first letter of a word is capitalised. When the whole word is capitalised, the tonos is dropped, eg. compare
+Έλληνας
+ΕΛΛΗΝΑΣ
+
+
+
The dialytika, on the other hand, is never dropped. A letter with both tonos and dialytika above drops the tonos but keeps the dialytika, eg. compare
+ευφυΐα
+ΕΥΦΥΪΑ
+
There are, however, some additional rules.
-
In all-caps, Greek diphthongs with tonos over the first vowel lose the tonos but gain a dialytika over the second vowel in the diphthong, eg. compare νεράιδαneráıðafairyΝΕΡΑΪΔΑ
+
+
In all-caps, Greek diphthongs with tonos over the first vowel lose the tonos but gain a dialytika over the second vowel in the diphthong, eg. compare
+νεράιδα
+ΝΕΡΑΪΔΑ
+
+
Also, all-caps Greek does not drop the tonos on the disjunctive eta (usually meaning ‘or’), eg. ήσουν ή εγώ ή εσύ becomes ΗΣΟΥΝ Ή ΕΓΩ Ή ΕΣΥ (note that the initial eta is not disjunctive, and so does drop the tonos). This is to maintain the distinction between ‘either/or’ ή from the η feminine form of the article, in the nominative case, singular number.
The consequences of these rules are that:
@@ -1694,7 +1720,7 @@
In-word line-breaks
The marker used is a hyphen, and it sits at the end of the line that is broken.
-
+An example of hyphenation as implemented by the Chrome browser.
@@ -1800,11 +1826,10 @@
Prefixes and suffixes
The default list style uses a full stop + space as a suffix.
-
Examples:
-
-
+
+
ϡ. ω. ψ.
diff --git a/grek/images/fig_kosmos.svg b/grek/images/fig_kosmos.svg
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..61c98989d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/grek/images/fig_kosmos.svg
@@ -0,0 +1,454 @@
+
\ No newline at end of file
+
